Low-Fouling Gold Nanorod Theranostic Agents Enabled by a Sulfoxide Polymer Coating.

Gold nanorods (GNRs) are widely used in various biomedical applications such as disease imaging and therapy due to their unique plasmonic properties. To improve their bioavailability, GNRs often need to be coated with hydrophilic polymers so as to impart stealth properties. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) has been long used as such a coating material for GNRs. However, there is increasing acknowledgement that the amphiphilic nature of PEG facilitates its interaction with protein molecules, leading to immune recognition and consequent side effects. This has motivated the search for new classes of low-fouling polymers with high hydrophilicity as alternative low-fouling surface coating materials for GNRs. Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization, and application of GNRs coated with highly hydrophilic sulfoxide-containing polymers. We investigated the effect of the sulfoxide polymer coating on the cellular uptake and in vivo circulation time of the GNRs and compared these properties with pegylated GNR counterparts. The photothermal effect and photoacoustic imaging of these polymer-coated GNRs were also explored, and the results show that these GNRs are promising as nanotheranostic particles for the treatment of cancer.

Non-Viral Vector-Mediated Gene Therapy for ALS: Challenges and Future Perspectives.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease, for which no effective treatment is yet available to either slow or terminate it. Recent advances in gene therapy renew hope for developing an effective approach to control this disease. Non-viral vectors, such as lipid- and polymer-based nanoparticles, cationic polymers, and exosomes, can effectively transfer genes into primary neurons. The resulting gene expression can be long-term, stable, and without immunological complications, which is essential for the effective management of neurological disorders. This Review will first describe the current research and clinical stage of novel therapies for ALS. It will then touch on the journey of non-viral vector use in ALS, subsequently highlighting the application of non-viral vector-mediated gene therapy. The bottlenecks in the translation of non-viral vectors for ALS treatment are also discussed, including the biological barriers of systemic administration and the issues of "when, where, and how much?" for effective gene delivery. The prospect of employing emerging techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, stem cell methodology, and low-intensity focused ultrasound for fueling the transport of non-viral vectors to the central nervous system for personalized gene therapy, is briefly discussed in the context of ALS. Despite the challenging road that lies ahead, with the current expansion in interest and technological advancement in non-viral vector-delivered gene therapy for ALS, we hold hope that the field is headed toward a positive future.

Lipid sulfoxide polymers as potential inhalable drug delivery platforms with differential albumin binding affinity.

Inhalable nanomedicines are increasingly being developed to optimise the pharmaceutical treatment of respiratory diseases. Large lipid-based nanosystems at the forefront of the inhalable nanomedicines development pipeline, though, have a number of limitations. The objective of this study was, therefore, to investigate the utility of novel small lipidated sulfoxide polymers based on poly(2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl acrylate) (PMSEA) as inhalable drug delivery platforms with tuneable membrane permeability imparted by differential albumin binding kinetics. Linear PMSEA (5 kDa) was used as a hydrophilic polymer backbone with excellent anti-fouling and stealth properties compared to poly(ethylene glycol). Terminal lipids comprising single (1C2, 1C12) or double (2C12) chain diglycerides were installed to provide differing affinities for albumin and, by extension, albumin trafficking pathways in the lungs. Albumin binding kinetics, cytotoxicity, lung mucus penetration and cellular uptake and permeability through key cellular barriers in the lungs were examined in vitro. The polymers showed good mucus penetration and no cytotoxicity over 24 h at up to 1 mg ml-1. While 1C2-showed no interaction with albumin, 1C12-PMSEA and 2C12-PMSEA bound albumin with KD values of approximately 76 and 10 µM, respectively. Despite binding to albumin, 2C12-PMSEA showed reduced cell uptake and membrane permeability compared to the smaller polymers and the presence of albumin had little effect on cell uptake and membrane permeability. While PMSEA strongly shielded these lipids from albumin, the data suggest that there is scope to tune the lipid component of these systems to control membrane permeability and cellular interactions in the lungs to tailor drug disposition in the lungs.

Fluoropolymer-MOF Hybrids with Switchable Hydrophilicity for 19F MRI-Monitored Cancer Therapy.

Cancer theranostics that combines cancer diagnosis and therapy is a promising approach for personalized cancer treatment. However, current theranostic strategies suffer from low imaging sensitivity for visualization and an inability to target the diseased tissue site with high specificity, thus hindering their translation to the clinic. In this study, we have developed a tumor microenvironment-responsive hybrid theranostic agent by grafting water-soluble, low-fouling fluoropolymers to pH-responsive zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles by surface-initiated RAFT polymerization. The conjugation of the fluoropolymers to ZIF-8 nanoparticles not only allows sensitive in vivo visualization of the nanoparticles by 19F MRI but also significantly prolongs their circulation time in the bloodstream, resulting in improved delivery efficiency to tumor tissue. The ZIF-8-fluoropolymer nanoparticles can respond to the acidic tumor microenvironment, leading to progressive degradation of the nanoparticles and release of zinc ions as well as encapsulated anticancer drugs. The zinc ions released from the ZIF-8 can further coordinate to the fluoropolymers to switch the hydrophilicity and reverse the surface charge of the nanoparticles. This transition in hydrophilicity and surface charge of the polymeric coating can reduce the "stealth-like" nature of the agent and enhance specific uptake by cancer cells. Hence, these hybrid nanoparticles represent intelligent theranostics with highly sensitive imaging capability, significantly prolonged blood circulation time, greatly improved accumulation within the tumor tissue, and enhanced anticancer therapeutic efficiency.

Cyanine-5-Driven Behaviours of Hyperbranched Polymers Designed for Therapeutic Delivery Are Cell-Type Specific and Correlated with Polar Lipid Distribution in Membranes.

The ability to predict the behaviour of polymeric nanomedicines can often be obfuscated by subtle modifications to the corona structure, such as incorporation of fluorophores or other entities. However, these interactions provide an intriguing insight into how selection of molecular components in multifunctional nanomedicines contributes to the overall biological fate of such materials. Here, we detail the internalisation behaviours of polymeric nanomedicines across a suite of cell types and extrapolate data for distinguishing the underlying mechanics of cyanine-5-driven interactions as they pertain to uptake and endosomal escape. By correlating the variance of rate kinetics with endosomal escape efficiency and endogenous lipid polarity, we identify that observed cell-type dependencies correspond with an underlying susceptibility to dye-mediated effects and nanomedicine accumulation within polar vesicles. Further, our results infer that the ability to translocate endosomal membranes may be improved in certain cell types, suggesting a potential role for diagnostic moieties in trafficking of drug-loaded nanocarriers.

Fluorophore Selection and Incorporation Contribute to Permeation and Distribution Behaviors of Hyperbranched Polymers in Multi-Cellular Tumor Spheroids and Xenograft Tumor Models.

Improving our understanding of how design choices in materials synthesis impact biological outcomes is of critical importance in the development of nanomedicines. Here, we show that fluorophore labeling of polymer nanomedicine candidates significantly alters their transport and cell association in multi-cellular tumor spheroids and their penetration in breast cancer xenografts, dependent on the type of the fluorophore and their positioning within the macromolecular structure. These data show the critical importance of the biomaterials structure and architecture in their tissue distribution and intracellular trafficking, which in turn govern their potential therapeutic efficacy. The broader implication of these findings suggests that when developing materials for medical applications, great care should be taken early on in the design process as relatively simple choices may have downstream impacts that could potentially skew preclinical biology data.

Targeted and modular architectural polymers employing bioorthogonal chemistry for quantitative therapeutic delivery.

There remain several key challenges to existing therapeutic systems for cancer therapy, such as quantitatively determining the true, tissue-specific drug release profile in vivo, as well as reducing side-effects for an increased standard of care. Hence, it is crucial to engineer new materials that allow for a better understanding of the in vivo pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic behaviours of therapeutics. We have expanded on recent "click-to-release" bioorthogonal pro-drug activation of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) to develop a modular and controlled theranostic system for quantitatively assessing site-specific drug activation and deposition from a nanocarrier molecule, by employing defined chemistries. The exploitation of quantitative imaging using positron emission tomography (PET) together with pre-targeted bioorthogonal chemistries in our system provided an effective means to assess in real-time the exact amount of active drug administered at precise sites in the animal; our methodology introduces flexibility in both the targeting and therapeutic components that is specific to nanomedicines and offers unique advantages over other technologies. In this approach, the in vivo click reaction facilitates pro-drug activation as well as provides a quantitative means to investigate the dynamic behaviour of the therapeutic agent.

Polymer design and component selection contribute to uptake, distribution & trafficking behaviours of polyethylene glycol hyperbranched polymers in live MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells.

As polymeric nanomedicines grow increasingly complex in design, an effective therapeutic release is often inherently tied to localisation to specific intracellular compartments or microenvironments. The inclusion of environmentally-sensitive moieties links the functionality of such materials to the trafficking behaviours exhibited once materials have obtained access to the cellular milieu. In order to perform their designed function, such materials often need to encounter specific biological cues or stimuli. As such, there is an increased need to improve our understanding of how the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials influence post-internalisation behaviours. Amongst the unknown factors that may contribute to the trafficking behaviours and distribution of polymers within the cellular environment, is the influence of the components selected in the development of such materials. To examine whether composition and arrangement of components within small polymeric nanomaterials contribute to their ability to navigate the intracellular space, here we utilise fluorophores to model component selection, varying the fluorescent handle selected and its method of incorporation. We explore the intracellular behaviours of well-characterised hyperbranched polymers in live MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells in vitro. Changes in distribution as a function of both fluorophore selection and placement are reported, and our data suggest that the individual components used to produce potential nanomedicines are critical to their overall functioning and efficacy. Further to this, through the use of a novel non-conjugated targeting ligand, we demonstrate that there is inherent competition between component-directing factors and cellular influences on the ultimate fate of the polymers. The behaviours reported here suggest that not only does component selection contribute to intracellular processing, but these factors could potentially be harnessed when designing polymers to ensure improved functionality of future materials for therapeutic delivery.