Inborn Errors of RNA Lariat Metabolism in Humans with Brainstem Viral Infection.

Viruses that are typically benign sometimes invade the brainstem in otherwise healthy children. We report bi-allelic DBR1 mutations in unrelated patients from different ethnicities, each of whom had brainstem infection due to herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1), influenza virus, or norovirus. DBR1 encodes the only known RNA lariat debranching enzyme. We show that DBR1 expression is ubiquitous, but strongest in the spinal cord and brainstem. We also show that all DBR1 mutant alleles are severely hypomorphic, in terms of expression and function. The fibroblasts of DBR1-mutated patients contain higher RNA lariat levels than control cells, this difference becoming even more marked during HSV1 infection. Finally, we show that the patients' fibroblasts are highly susceptible to HSV1. RNA lariat accumulation and viral susceptibility are rescued by wild-type DBR1. Autosomal recessive, partial DBR1 deficiency underlies viral infection of the brainstem in humans through the disruption of tissue-specific and cell-intrinsic immunity to viruses.

Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in Chronic Granulomatous Disease: Insights From a Large National Cohort.

Neutrophils are the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Neutrophils execute and modulate immune responses by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) is a primary immune deficiency disorder of phagocytes, caused by inherited mutations in the genes of the NADPH oxidase enzyme. These mutations lead to failure of ROS generation followed by recurrent bacterial and fungal infections, frequently associated with hyper-inflammatory manifestations. We report a multi-center cumulative experience in diagnosing and treating patients with CGD. From 1986 to 2021, 2,918 patients suffering from frequent infections were referred for neutrophil evaluation. Among them, 110 patients were diagnosed with CGD, 56 of Jewish ancestry, 48 of Arabic ancestry and 6 non-Jewish/non-Arabic. As opposed to other Western countries, the autosomal recessive (AR) CGD subtypes were predominant in Israel (71/110 patients). Thirty-nine patients had X-linked CGD, in most patients associated with severe infections (clinical severity score ≥3) and poor outcomes, presenting at a significantly earlier age than AR-CGD subtypes. The full spectrum of infections and hyper-inflammatory manifestations are described. Six patients had hypomorphic mutations with significantly milder phenotype, clinical severity score ≤2, and better outcomes. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation was implemented in 39/110 patients (35.5%). Successful engraftment was achieved in 92%, with 82% long-term survival and 71% full clinical recovery. CGD is a complex disorder requiring a multi-professional team. Early identification of the genetic mutation is essential for prompt diagnosis, suitable management and prevention.

Transendothelial migration of lymphocytes mediated by intraendothelial vesicle stores rather than by extracellular chemokine depots.

Chemokines presented by the endothelium are critical for integrin-dependent adhesion and transendothelial migration of naive and memory lymphocytes. Here we found that effector lymphocytes of the type 1 helper T cell (T(H)1 cell) and type 1 cytotoxic T cell (T(C)1 cell) subtypes expressed adhesive integrins that bypassed chemokine signals and established firm arrests on variably inflamed endothelial barriers. Nevertheless, the transendothelial migration of these lymphocytes strictly depended on signals from guanine nucleotide-binding proteins of the G(i) type and was promoted by multiple endothelium-derived inflammatory chemokines, even without outer endothelial surface exposure. Instead, transendothelial migration-promoting endothelial chemokines were stored in vesicles docked on actin fibers beneath the plasma membranes and were locally released within tight lymphocyte-endothelial synapses. Thus, effector T lymphocytes can cross inflamed barriers through contact-guided consumption of intraendothelial chemokines without surface-deposited chemokines or extraendothelial chemokine gradients.

Adherence to Immunization: Rebuttal of Vaccine Hesitancy.

Immunizations have been saving the lives of millions of people since they were first used by Edward Jenner in 1796, and new vaccines are being developed all the time. Hopefully, a new vaccine for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) will be developed in the near future, and perhaps even one for human immunodeficiency virus. Although the effectiveness of vaccinations has been proven over the years and adverse effects to currently available vaccinations are extremely rare, many people continue to defer immunizations for themselves and their families. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), this phenomenon, known as "vaccine hesitancy," is a major public health problem globally. This review summarizes the unproven adverse effects of various vaccines and stresses the importance of enforcing vaccination policies to minimize vaccine hesitancy. Every effort should be made to improve existing vaccines and to produce new ones, according to carefully designed scientific preclinical and clinical trials. This is particularly important in today's era, in light of the global transparency regarding vaccination development, and the potential for future pandemics such as COVID-19.

Correction to: Human Inborn Errors of Immunity: 2019 Update on the Classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained mistakes in reference numbers. The in-text citations and the references were mismatched. The original article has been corrected.

Human Inborn Errors of Immunity: 2019 Update of the IUIS Phenotypical Classification.

Since 2013, the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) expert committee (EC) on Inborn Errors of Immunity (IEI) has published an updated phenotypic classification of IEI, which accompanies and complements their genotypic classification into ten tables. This phenotypic classification is user-friendly and serves as a resource for clinicians at the bedside. There are now 430 single-gene IEI underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, autoimmunity, and autoinflammation. We herein report the 2019 phenotypic classification, including the 65 new conditions. The diagnostic algorithms are based on clinical and laboratory phenotypes for each of the ten broad categories of IEI.

Human Inborn Errors of Immunity: 2019 Update on the Classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee.

We report the updated classification of Inborn Errors of Immunity/Primary Immunodeficiencies, compiled by the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee. This report documents the key clinical and laboratory features of 430 inborn errors of immunity, including 64 gene defects that have either been discovered in the past 2 years since the previous update (published January 2018) or were characterized earlier but have since been confirmed or expanded upon in subsequent studies. The application of next-generation sequencing continues to expedite the rapid identification of novel gene defects, rare or common; broaden the immunological and clinical phenotypes of conditions arising from known gene defects and even known variants; and implement gene-specific therapies. These advances are contributing to greater understanding of the molecular, cellular, and immunological mechanisms of disease, thereby enhancing immunological knowledge while improving the management of patients and their families. This report serves as a valuable resource for the molecular diagnosis of individuals with heritable immunological disorders and also for the scientific dissection of cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying inborn errors of immunity and related human diseases.

Leucocyte adhesion deficiency-A multicentre national experience.

Leucocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) is a rare, innate autosomal recessive immunodeficiency with three subtypes. Twenty-nine patients with LADs were diagnosed and treated in Israeli Medical Centers and in the Palestinian Authority. We discuss the phenotypic, genotypic and biochemical features of LAD-I, LAD-II and LAD-III diagnosed during the neonatal period and early infancy in 18, 6 and 5 patients, respectively. Consanguinity was frequent. Common features were severe infections of variable aetiology, excessive leukocytosis and delayed umbilical cord detachment. In LAD-I, the integrin CD18 expression varied from negligible to normal. However, CD11a expression was negligible in all tested patients, suggesting both CD11a and CD18 should be used to assess this subtype. LAD-II patients showed distinctive facial features, physical malformations, short stature and developmental delay. These patients show defective expression of SLeX (CD15a) on cell surface glycoproteins and lack of H antigen on erythroid cell surfaces resulting in Bombay blood group (hh). LAD-III showed intact but inactive ß2 integrins associated with severe infections and significant bleeding disorders caused by defective platelet aggregation and thrombocytopenia. We report four patients with two new unpublished mutations: two LAD-I patients with c.1099delG in ITGB2 and two LAD-III patients with c.1069C>T in FERMT3. LAD-I patients harbouring the c.119_128 deletion in ITGB2 seemed to have better outcomes as compared to other LAD-I patients. Eight patients with LAD-I and -III underwent successful haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cumulative survival was 75%, 50% and 40% for LAD-I, LAD-II and LAD-III, with a median follow-up of 4 (0.08-19), 3.25 (1-32) and 6 (0.08-8) years, respectively. Prenatal diagnosis is recommended in families with LAD syndromes.

Analysis of Chronic Granulomatous Disease in the Kavkazi Population in Israel Reveals Phenotypic Heterogeneity in Patients with the Same NCF1 mutation (c.579G>A).

PURPOSE: Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is an innate immune deficiency disorder of phagocytes, resulting from mutations in the components of the NADPH oxidase complex that impair the synthesis of oxygen radicals, thus rendering patients susceptible to recurrent infections and excessive hyperinflammatory responses. The most common autosomal recessive form of CGD is p47phox deficiency, which is often clinically milder than the more common X-linked recessive form. Here, we report data on genetics, clinical and biochemical findings in 17 CGD patients of Kavkazi origin with the nonsense mutation c.579G>A in the NCF1 gene, leading to p47phox deficiency. METHODS: Diagnosis was based on detailed clinical evaluation, respiratory burst activity by cytochrome c reduction and dihydrorhodamine-1,2,3 (DHR) assay by flow cytometry, expression of p47phox by immunoblotting and molecular confirmation by DNA sequence analysis. RESULTS: Twelve male and five female patients with median age at onset of 2.5 years (range 1 day to 9 years) were included in the study. The present cohort displays an encouraging 88% overall long-term survival, with median follow-up of 17 years. Clinical manifestations varied from mild to severe expression of the disease. Correlation between genotype and phenotype is unpredictable, although the Kavkazi patients were more severely affected than other patients with p47phox deficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Kavkazi CGD patients harbor a common genetic mutation that is associated with a heterogeneous clinical phenotype. Early diagnosis and proper clinical management in an experienced phagocytic leukocyte center is imperative to ensure favorable patient outcome. New treatment strategies are ongoing, but results are not yet conclusive.

The 2017 IUIS Phenotypic Classification for Primary Immunodeficiencies.

Since the 1990s, the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) PID expert committee (EC), now called Inborn Errors of Immunity Committee, has published every other year a classification of the inborn errors of immunity. This complete catalog serves as a reference for immunologists and researchers worldwide. However, it was unadapted for clinicians at the bedside. For those, the IUIS PID EC is now publishing a phenotypical classification since 2013, which proved to be more user-friendly. There are now 320 single-gene inborn errors of immunity underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, auto-immunity, and auto-inflammation. We herein propose the revised 2017 phenotypic classification, based on the accompanying 2017 IUIS Inborn Errors of Immunity Committee classification.

International Union of Immunological Societies: 2017 Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Committee Report on Inborn Errors of Immunity.

Beginning in 1970, a committee was constituted under the auspices of the World Health Organization (WHO) to catalog primary immunodeficiencies. Twenty years later, the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) took the remit of this committee. The current report details the categorization and listing of 354 (as of February 2017) inborn errors of immunity. The growth and increasing complexity of the field have been impressive, encompassing an increasing variety of conditions, and the classification described here will serve as a critical reference for immunologists and researchers worldwide.

Heterozygous STAT1 gain-of-function mutations underlie an unexpectedly broad clinical phenotype.

Since their discovery in patients with autosomal dominant (AD) chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMC) in 2011, heterozygous STAT1 gain-of-function (GOF) mutations have increasingly been identified worldwide. The clinical spectrum associated with them needed to be delineated. We enrolled 274 patients from 167 kindreds originating from 40 countries from 5 continents. Demographic data, clinical features, immunological parameters, treatment, and outcome were recorded. The median age of the 274 patients was 22 years (range, 1-71 years); 98% of them had CMC, with a median age at onset of 1 year (range, 0-24 years). Patients often displayed bacterial (74%) infections, mostly because of Staphylococcus aureus (36%), including the respiratory tract and the skin in 47% and 28% of patients, respectively, and viral (38%) infections, mostly because of Herpesviridae (83%) and affecting the skin in 32% of patients. Invasive fungal infections (10%), mostly caused by Candida spp. (29%), and mycobacterial disease (6%) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, environmental mycobacteria, or Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccines were less common. Many patients had autoimmune manifestations (37%), including hypothyroidism (22%), type 1 diabetes (4%), blood cytopenia (4%), and systemic lupus erythematosus (2%). Invasive infections (25%), cerebral aneurysms (6%), and cancers (6%) were the strongest predictors of poor outcome. CMC persisted in 39% of the 202 patients receiving prolonged antifungal treatment. Circulating interleukin-17A-producing T-cell count was low for most (82%) but not all of the patients tested. STAT1 GOF mutations underlie AD CMC, as well as an unexpectedly wide range of other clinical features, including not only a variety of infectious and autoimmune diseases, but also cerebral aneurysms and carcinomas that confer a poor prognosis.

Immune defects caused by mutations in the ubiquitin system.

The importance of the ubiquitin system in health and disease has been widely recognized in recent decades, with better understanding of the various components of the system and their function. Ubiquitination, which is essential to almost all biological processes in eukaryotes, was also found to play an important role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Thus it is not surprising that mutations in genes coding for components of the ubiquitin system cause immune dysregulation. The first defect in the system was described 30 years ago and is due to mutations in the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) essential modulator, a key regulator of the NF-κB pathway. With use of novel sequencing techniques, many additional mutations in different genes involved in ubiquitination and related to immune system function were identified. This can be clearly illustrated in mutations in the different activation pathways of NF-κB, which result in aberrations in production of various proinflammatory cytokines. The inherited diseases typically manifest with immunodeficiency, autoimmunity, or autoinflammation. In this perspective we provide a short description of the ubiquitin system, with specific emphasis given to its role in the immune system. The various immunodeficiency conditions identified thus far in association with defective ubiquitination are discussed in more detail.

Ataxia-telangiectasia: Immunodeficiency and survival.

Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by ataxia, telangiectasia, and immunodeficiency. An increased risk of malignancies and respiratory diseases dramatically reduce life expectancy. To better counsel families, develop individual follow-up programs, and select patients for therapeutic trials, more knowledge is needed on factors influencing survival. This retrospective cohort study of 61 AT patients shows that classical AT patients had a shorter survival than variant patients (HR 5.9, 95%CI 2.0-17.7), especially once a malignancy was diagnosed (HR 2.5, 95%CI 1.1-5.5, compared to classical AT patients without malignancy). Patients with the hyper IgM phenotype with hypogammaglobulinemia (AT-HIGM) and patients with an IgG2 deficiency showed decreased survival compared to patients with normal IgG (HR 9.2, 95%CI 3.2-26.5) and patients with normal IgG2 levels (HR 7.8, 95%CI 1.7-36.2), respectively. If high risk treatment trials will become available for AT, those patients with factors indicating the poorest prognosis might be considered for inclusion first.

Chronic granulomatous disease: Clinical, functional, molecular, and genetic studies. The Israeli experience with 84 patients.

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is an innate immunodeficiency with a genetic defect of the nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced, oxidase components. This leads to decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which renders patients susceptible to life-threatening infections. Over the course of 30 years, we diagnosed CGD in 84 patients from 61 families using functional, molecular, and genetic studies. The incidence of CGD in Israel is 1.05 per 100,000 live-births in the Jewish population and 1.49 in the Israeli Arab population. We diagnosed 52 patients (62%) with autosomal recessive inheritance (AR-CGD) and 32 (38%) with X-linked recessive inheritance (XLR-CGD). Consanguinity was detected in 64% of AR-CGD families (14% in Jews and 50% in Israeli Arabs). We found 36 different mutations (23 in XLR-CGD and 13 in AR-CGD patients), 15 of which were new. The clinical spectrum of CGD varied from mild to severe disease in both XLR and AR forms, although the AR subtype is generally milder. Further, residual ROS production correlated with milder clinical expression, better prognosis and improved overall survival. Patients with recurrent pyogenic infections developed fibrosis and hyperinflammatory states with granuloma formation. The management of CGD has progressed substantially in recent years, evolving from a fatal disease of early childhood to one of long-term survival. Our present cohort displays an encouraging 81% overall long term survival. Early hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is advisable before tissue damage is irreversible. Successful transplantation was performed in 18/21 patients. Therapeutic gene modification could become an alternative cure for CGD. Am. J. Hematol. 92:28-36, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The extended clinical phenotype of 64 patients with dedicator of cytokinesis 8 deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) cause a combined immunodeficiency (CID) also classified as autosomal recessive (AR) hyper-IgE syndrome (HIES). Recognizing patients with CID/HIES is of clinical importance because of the difference in prognosis and management. OBJECTIVES: We sought to define the clinical features that distinguish DOCK8 deficiency from other forms of HIES and CIDs, study the mutational spectrum of DOCK8 deficiency, and report on the frequency of specific clinical findings. METHODS: Eighty-two patients from 60 families with CID and the phenotype of AR-HIES with (64 patients) and without (18 patients) DOCK8 mutations were studied. Support vector machines were used to compare clinical data from 35 patients with DOCK8 deficiency with those from 10 patients with AR-HIES without a DOCK8 mutation and 64 patients with signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) mutations. RESULTS: DOCK8-deficient patients had median IgE levels of 5201 IU, high eosinophil levels of usually at least 800/µL (92% of patients), and low IgM levels (62%). About 20% of patients were lymphopenic, mainly because of low CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell counts. Fewer than half of the patients tested produced normal specific antibody responses to recall antigens. Bacterial (84%), viral (78%), and fungal (70%) infections were frequently observed. Skin abscesses (60%) and allergies (73%) were common clinical problems. In contrast to STAT3 deficiency, there were few pneumatoceles, bone fractures, and teething problems. Mortality was high (34%). A combination of 5 clinical features was helpful in distinguishing patients with DOCK8 mutations from those with STAT3 mutations. CONCLUSIONS: DOCK8 deficiency is likely in patients with severe viral infections, allergies, and/or low IgM levels who have a diagnosis of HIES plus hypereosinophilia and upper respiratory tract infections in the absence of parenchymal lung abnormalities, retained primary teeth, and minimal trauma fractures.

Deleterious mutations in LRBA are associated with a syndrome of immune deficiency and autoimmunity.

Most autosomal genetic causes of childhood-onset hypogammaglobulinemia are currently not well understood. Most affected individuals are simplex cases, but both autosomal-dominant and autosomal-recessive inheritance have been described. We performed genetic linkage analysis in consanguineous families affected by hypogammaglobulinemia. Four consanguineous families with childhood-onset humoral immune deficiency and features of autoimmunity shared genotype evidence for a linkage interval on chromosome 4q. Sequencing of positional candidate genes revealed that in each family, affected individuals had a distinct homozygous mutation in LRBA (lipopolysaccharide responsive beige-like anchor protein). All LRBA mutations segregated with the disease because homozygous individuals showed hypogammaglobulinemia and autoimmunity, whereas heterozygous individuals were healthy. These mutations were absent in healthy controls. Individuals with homozygous LRBA mutations had no LRBA, had disturbed B cell development, defective in vitro B cell activation, plasmablast formation, and immunoglobulin secretion, and had low proliferative responses. We conclude that mutations in LRBA cause an immune deficiency characterized by defects in B cell activation and autophagy and by susceptibility to apoptosis, all of which are associated with a clinical phenotype of hypogammaglobulinemia and autoimmunity.

The 2015 IUIS Phenotypic Classification for Primary Immunodeficiencies.

There are now nearly 300 single-gene inborn errors of immunity underlying phenotypes as diverse as infection, malignancy, allergy, auto-immunity, and auto-inflammation. For each of these five categories, a growing variety of phenotypes are ascribed to Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases (PID), making PIDs a rapidly expanding field of medicine. The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) PID expert committee (EC) has published every other year a classification of these disorders into tables, defined by shared pathogenesis and/or clinical consequences. In 2013, the IUIS committee also proposed a more user-friendly, phenotypic classification, based on the selection of key phenotypes at the bedside. We herein propose the revised figures, based on the accompanying 2015 IUIS PID EC classification.

Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases: an Update on the Classification from the International Union of Immunological Societies Expert Committee for Primary Immunodeficiency 2015.

We report the updated classification of primary immunodeficiencies compiled by the Primary Immunodeficiency Expert Committee (PID EC) of the International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS). In the two years since the previous version, 34 new gene defects are reported in this updated version. For each disorder, the key clinical and laboratory features are provided. In this new version we continue to see the increasing overlap between immunodeficiency, as manifested by infection and/or malignancy, and immune dysregulation, as manifested by auto-inflammation, auto-immunity, and/or allergy. There is also an increased number of genetic defects that lead to susceptibility to specific organisms which reflects the finely tuned nature of immune defense systems. This classification is the most up to date catalogue of all known and published primary immunodeficiencies and acts as a current reference of the knowledge of these conditions and is an important aid for the genetic and molecular diagnosis of patients with these rare diseases.