A "Dirty" Footprint: Macroinvertebrate diversity in Amazonian Anthropic Soils.

Amazonian rainforests, once thought to be pristine wilderness, are increasingly known to have been widely inhabited, modified, and managed prior to European arrival, by human populations with diverse cultural backgrounds. Amazonian Dark Earths (ADEs) are fertile soils found throughout the Amazon Basin, created by pre-Columbian societies with sedentary habits. Much is known about the chemistry of these soils, yet their zoology has been neglected. Hence, we characterized soil fertility, macroinvertebrate communities, and their activity at nine archeological sites in three Amazonian regions in ADEs and adjacent reference soils under native forest (young and old) and agricultural systems. We found 673 morphospecies and, despite similar richness in ADEs (385 spp.) and reference soils (399 spp.), we identified a tenacious pre-Columbian footprint, with 49% of morphospecies found exclusively in ADEs. Termite and total macroinvertebrate abundance were higher in reference soils, while soil fertility and macroinvertebrate activity were higher in the ADEs, and associated with larger earthworm quantities and biomass. We show that ADE habitats have a unique pool of species, but that modern land use of ADEs decreases their populations, diversity, and contributions to soil functioning. These findings support the idea that humans created and sustained high-fertility ecosystems that persist today, altering biodiversity patterns in Amazonia.

Temperature and productivity distinctly affect the species richness of ectothermic and endothermic multitrophic guilds along a tropical elevational gradient.

The diversity of endotherms and ectotherms may be differently affected by ambient temperature and net primary productivity (NPP). Additionally, little is known about how these drivers affect the diversity of guilds of different trophic levels. We assessed the relative role of temperature and NPP in multitrophic guilds of ectothermic (arthropods: ants, ground beetles, spiders, and harvestmen) and endothermic (large mammals) animals along a tropical elevational gradient. We sampled arthropods at eight elevation belts and large mammals at 14 elevation belts in Atlantic rainforest (ranging from 600 to 2450 m.a.s.l.) of Itatiaia National Park, Southeast Brazil. Overall arthropod species richness was more associated with temperature than overall large-mammal species richness, while the latter was more associated with NPP. When separated into trophic guilds, we found that the species richness associated with NPP increased across arthropod trophic levels from herbivores to predators. Conversely, although NPP influenced large-mammal herbivore species richness, its effects did not seem to accumulate across large-mammal trophic levels since the species richness of large-mammal omnivores was more associated with temperature and none of the variables we studied influenced large-mammal predators. We suggest that thermal physiological differences between ectotherms and endotherms are responsible for the way in which arthropods and large mammals interact with or are constrained by the environment. Furthermore, the inconsistency regarding the role of temperature and NPP on species richness across multitrophic guilds of ectotherms and endotherms could indicate that thermal physiological differences might also interfere with energy use and flux in the food web.

Bird and ant synergy increases the seed dispersal effectiveness of an ornithochoric shrub.

Seed dispersal may involve different vectors of dispersal in two or more sequential phases (i.e., diplochory). However, contributions of each phase to the overall seed dispersal effectiveness (SDE) are poorly understood and hard to evaluate due to post-dispersal processes that affect seed and seedling survival. We investigated the simultaneous bird (phase 1, in plant canopy) and ant (phase 2, on the floor) contributions to SDE with the ornithochoric shrub Erythroxylum ambiguum in a Brazilian Atlantic forest. Twelve species of birds fed on fruit and dispersed approximately 26 % of the seed crop. The remaining seed crop, 90 % of which contained viable seeds, fell to the ground beneath the parental plant. Ants either cleaned seeds in fruits or carried fallen fruit and seeds from bird feces to their nests. Although E. ambiguum has no adaptation for ant dispersal, ants were as quantitatively important as birds. Birds and ants equally increased germination rates compared to controls. However, birds deposited seeds farther from the parent, where seedling survival was higher (78 %) than it was beneath the parent (44 %), whereas ants carried seeds to their nests, where seedling survival was higher (83 %) than in controls away from their nests (63 %). Diplochory allowed a 42 % increase in SDE compared to dispersal in phase 1 alone. High lipid content in the fruit pulp of E. ambiguum may facilitate the inclusion of ants in a second step of dispersal after diaspores reach the floor. Ants can also buffer the dispersal of diplochorous plants against decreases in phase 1 dispersers.

Mimicry and eavesdropping enable a new form of social parasitism in ants.

Social parasitism is defined by the exploitation of the social mechanisms of one society by another whole society. Here, we use quantitative ecological data and experiments to identify the components of a new form of social parasitism by the recently discovered "mirror turtle ant," Cephalotes specularis. We show that C. specularis workers visually mimic and actively avoid contact with foragers of the hyperaggressive host ant Crematogaster ampla, allowing them to move freely in the extensive and otherwise defended foraging networks of host colonies. Workers from parasite colonies have immediate access to these networks by nesting exclusively within host territories, and 89% of all potential host territories were parasitized. Inside the network, parasite workers eavesdrop on the host's trail pheromones to locate and exploit food resources that are defended by the host to the exclusion of all other ants. Experiments demonstrated the unprecedented capacity of the parasite for superior foraging performance on its host's pheromone trails than on trails of its own. Considered together, the apparent Batesian-Wallacian mimicry, pheromone-based interceptive eavesdropping, kleptoparasitism, and xenobiotic nesting ecology displayed by C. specularis within the territory and foraging network of a host ant represents a novel adaptive syndrome for social exploitation.

Description of Cephalotes specularis n. sp. (Formicidae: Myrmicinae)-the mirror turtle ant.

We describe here Cephalotes specularis n. sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmicinae: Cephalotini) based on minor and major workers, gynes and larvae from Uberlândia, Minas Gerais state, Brazil. On morphological and molecular grounds, this new species belongs to the C. fiebrigi + C. bruchi species complex, of which there are 11 previously described species (one in C. bruchi group and 10 in the C. fiebrigi group). All members of these groups are found in, or are limited to the South American "arid diagonal", comprised of the Argentinian Chaco, the Cerrados of central South America, and the Brazilian northeastern caatingas. Workers of C. specularis n. sp. have an extremely shiny gaster which is mirror-like, notwithstanding its sparse covering by minute hairs. This species engages in a form of resource-based social parasitism of the host ant Crematogaster ampla (Myrmicinae: Crematogastrini). Cephalotes specularis foragers move freely in the dense traffic of Crematogaster ampla foraging trails. They exhibit highly atypical body posturing for turtle ants, which makes them hard to distinguish from the Crematogaster foragers.

Evolution and functional implications of stinger shape in ants.

Trait diversification is often driven by underlying performance tradeoffs in the context of different selective pressures. Evolutionary changes in task specialization may influence how species respond to tradeoffs and alter diversification. We conducted this study to investigate the functional morphology, evolutionary history, and tempo and mode of evolution of the Hymenoptera stinger using Ectatomminae ants as a model clade. We hypothesized that a performance tradeoff surface underlies the diversity of stinger morphology and that shifts between predatory and omnivorous diets mediate the diversification dynamics of the trait. Shape variation was characterized by X-ray microtomography, and the correlation between shape and average values of von Mises stress, as a measure of yield failure criteria under loading conditions typical of puncture scenarios, was determined using finite element analysis. We observed that stinger elongation underlies most of the shape variation but found no evidence of biomechanical tradeoffs in the performance characteristics measured. Additionally, omnivores have increased phenotypic shifts and accelerated evolution in performance metrics, suggesting the evolution of dietary flexibility releases selection pressure on a specific function, resulting in a greater phenotypic evolutionary rate. These results increase our understanding of the biomechanical basis of stinger shape, indicate that shape diversity is not the outcome of simple biomechanical optimization, and reveal connections between diet and trait diversification.

The Ground-Dwelling Ant Fauna from a Cerrado Reserve in Southeastern Brazil: Vegetation Heterogeneity as a Promoter of Ant Diversity.

Ants represent one of the most diverse and ecologically important group of insects in tropical ecosystems, including in highly threatened ones such as the Brazilian Cerrado. Yet, a detailed understanding of the species diversity and composition of local Cerrado ant assemblages is lacking in many cases. Here we present the results of a comprehensive ant inventory performed within a region of the Cerrado (in São Paulo state) where most of the original vegetation has already been lost and where few conservation units exist. We performed consecutive surveys of the ant fauna that forage on the ground in replicated plots established in open savanna (campo sujo), dense savanna (cerrado sensu stricto), and forest (cerradão). Our surveys, with an estimated sample coverage of 99.4%, revealed a total of 219 species of ants from 60 genera, of which 36.1% were found in all the three vegetation types and 29.7% in just one. Rarefied species richness did not differ between vegetation types, but species composition differed markedly, especially between the two savannas in one hand and the forest in the other. Several species (60.1% of the 128 species analyzed) were significant "indicator" species due to their strong association with a given vegetation type. Overall, our findings reinforce the idea that habitat heterogeneity enhances ant diversity and that the mosaic of vegetation types that characterizes the Cerrado biome is one of the main factors explaining the elevated number of species that can be found at relatively small scales.

Testing the context dependence of ant nutrient preference across habitat strata and trophic levels in Neotropical biomes.

Animals are integrated into the wider ecosystem via their foraging and behavior. The compensation hypothesis predicts that animals target their foraging efforts (i) toward nutrients that are scarce in the environment and (ii) toward nutrients that are not present in the usual diet of species, which varies across trophic levels. Understanding how foraging for resources varies locally, such as across habitat strata, and trophic levels will help to elucidate the links between the local environment and communities to the ecological functions that animals mediate. We examined whether the relative resource use of ants varies consistently along a habitat strata gradient and across trophic levels across Neotropical biomes. We placed 4500 baited tubes, each containing one of five liquid resources (sugar, amino acid, lipid, sodium, and distilled water) in one of three habitat strata (subterranean, epigaeic, and arboreal) across 60 transects in Amazon, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, Cerrado, Pampa, and Pantanal biomes. We assessed the relative resource use of all ants across the habitat strata and among two different trophic groups across biomes. The relative preference for sugar increased from subterranean to arboreal strata in all biomes, while the relative preference for lipids decreased at this gradient in five biomes. We also found that in general sugar-consuming ants foraged more for sugar and less for lipids than predatory ants across biomes. Conversely, we found no consistency across biomes in nutrient preference of amino acid and sodium across habitat strata or trophic levels. Overall, our results indicate sugar limitation in the arboreal stratum and lipid limitation on the ground across biomes and that the trophic level of ants strongly determines their foraging efforts-possibly because ants try to fix their dietary nutrient imbalances. Hence, our findings suggest strong local niche partitioning of sugar and lipid use across habitat strata and trophic levels and that other large spatial scale processes influence the local amino acid and sodium dynamics.

Os animais se integram nos ecossistemas pelos seus esforços e comportamento de forrageio. A hipótese da compensação prevê que os animais direcionam seus esforços de forrageio para (i) nutrientes que são escassos no ambiente e (ii) para nutrientes que não estão presentes em sua dieta, que variam entre os níveis tróficos. Assim, entender como a busca de recursos varia localmente entre os estratos de habitat e entre níveis tróficos, ajudará a entender as conexões entre o ambiente e suas comunidades com as funções ecológicas mediadas pelos animais. Avaliamos se o uso relativo de recursos das formigas varia consistentemente em um gradiente de estratos de habitat e em diferentes níveis tróficos nos biomas Neotropicais. Disponibilizamos um total de 4.500 tubos contendo um de cinco recursos líquidos (açúcar, aminoácido, lipídio, sódio e água destilada) em três estratos de habitat (subterrâneo, epigéico e arbóreo) em 60 transectos distribuídos nos biomas Amazônia, Mata Atlântica, Caatinga, Cerrado, Pampa e Pantanal. Avaliamos o uso relativo de recursos de todas as formigas ao longo dos estratos de habitat e entre dois grupos tróficos diferentes nos biomas. A preferência relativa por açúcar aumentou do estrato subterrâneo para o arbóreo em todos os biomas, enquanto a preferência relativa por lipídios diminuiu neste gradiente em cinco biomas. Também descobrimos que, em geral, as formigas consumidoras de açúcar procuram mais açúcar e menos lipídios do que as formigas predadoras nos biomas. Por outro lado, não encontramos consistência entre biomas na preferência nutricional de aminoácidos e sódio nos estratos de habitat ou níveis tróficos. No geral, nossos resultados indicam limitação de açúcar no estrato arbóreo e limitação de lipídios no solo em todos os biomas e que o nível trófico das formigas determina fortemente seus esforços de forrageamento - possivelmente porque as formigas tentam corrigir seus desequilíbrios de nutrientes na dieta. Portanto, nossas descobertas sugerem forte partição de nicho local de uso de açúcar e lipídios em estratos de habitat e níveis tróficos e que outros processos de grande escala espacial influenciam a dinâmica local de aminoácidos e sódio.

From species descriptions to diversity patterns: the validation of taxonomic data as a keystone for ant diversity studies reproducibility and accuracy.

Research findings in natural sciences need to be comparable and reproducible to effectively improve our understanding of ecological and behavioural patterns. In this sense, knowledge frontiers in biodiversity studies are directly tied to taxonomic research, especially in species-rich tropical regions. Here we analysed the taxonomic information available in 470 studies on Brazilian ant diversity published in the last 50 years. We aimed to quantify the proportion of studies that provide enough data to validate taxonomic identification, explore the frequency of studies that properly acknowledge their taxonomic background, and investigate the primary resources for ant identification in Brazil. We found that most studies on Brazilian ant diversity (73.6%) explicitly stated the methods used to identify their specimens. However, the proportion of papers that provide complete data for the repository institutions and vouchered specimens is vanishingly small (5.8%). Additionally, only 40.0% of the studies consistently presented taxon authorities and years of description, rarely referencing taxonomic publications correctly. In turn, the number of specialists and institutions consulted for ant identification in Brazil has increased in the last years, along with the number of studies that explicitly provide their taxonomic procedures for ant identification. Our findings highlight a shift between generations regarding the recognition of taxonomy as fundamental science, deepening our understanding of biodiversity.

ATLANTIC ANTS: a data set of ants in Atlantic Forests of South America.

Ants, an ecologically successful and numerically dominant group of animals, play key ecological roles as soil engineers, predators, nutrient recyclers, and regulators of plant growth and reproduction in most terrestrial ecosystems. Further, ants are widely used as bioindicators of the ecological impact of land use. We gathered information of ant species in the Atlantic Forest of South America. The ATLANTIC ANTS data set, which is part of the ATLANTIC SERIES data papers, is a compilation of ant records from collections (18,713 records), unpublished data (29,651 records), and published sources (106,910 records; 1,059 references), including papers, theses, dissertations, and book chapters published from 1886 to 2020. In total, the data set contains 153,818 ant records from 7,636 study locations in the Atlantic Forest, representing 10 subfamilies, 99 genera, 1,114 ant species identified with updated taxonomic certainty, and 2,235 morphospecies codes. Our data set reflects the heterogeneity in ant records, which include ants sampled at the beginning of the taxonomic history of myrmecology (the 19th and 20th centuries) and more recent ant surveys designed to address specific questions in ecology and biology. The data set can be used by researchers to develop strategies to deal with different macroecological and region-wide questions, focusing on assemblages, species occurrences, and distribution patterns. Furthermore, the data can be used to assess the consequences of changes in land use in the Atlantic Forest on different ecological processes. No copyright restrictions apply to the use of this data set, but we request that authors cite this data paper when using these data in publications or teaching events.

Babassu aqueous extract (BAE) as an adjuvant for T helper (Th)1-dependent immune responses in mice of a Th2 immune response-prone strain.

BACKGROUND: The aqueous extract of a Brazilian palm-tree fruit - the babassu - (BAE) exerts a clear immunostimulative activity in vivo. In the present work, the possibility that BAE can promote Th1 immune responses in mice of a Th2 immune response-prone strain - the BALB/c was investigated. BAE itself, and preparations consisting of Leishmania amazonensis promastigote extract (LE), adsorbed or not to Al(OH)3, and in the presence or not of BAE, were used as immunogens. LE and Al(OH)3 have been shown to preferentially elicit Th2 immune responses. RESULTS: The addition of BAE to LE-containing immunogenic preparations, adsorbed or not to Al(OH)3, clearly promoted the in vitro production of interferon γ (IFN-γ), a major Th1-dependent cytokine, and not of interleukin (IL-)4 (a Th2-dependent cytokine), by LE-stimulated splenocytes of immunized BALB/c mice. It also promoted the in vivo formation of IgG2a anti-LE antibodies. However, immunization with LE by itself led to an increased production of IL-4 by LE-stimulated splenocytes, and this production, albeit not enhanced, was not reduced by the addition of BAE to the immunogen. On the other hand, the IL-4 production by LE-stimulated splenocytes was significantly lower in mice immunized with a preparation containing Al(OH)3-adsorbed LE and BAE than in mice immunized with the control preparation of Al(OH)3-adsorbed LE without BAE. Moreover, an increased production of IFN-γ, and not of IL-4, was observed in the culture supernatants of splenocytes, from BAE-immunized mice, which were in vitro stimulated with BAE or which received no specific in vitro stimulus. No differences in IL-10 (an immunoregulatory cytokine) levels in the supernatants of splenocytes from mice that were injected with BAE, in relation to splenocytes from control mice, were observed. The spontaneous ex vivo production of NO by splenocytes of mice that had been injected with BAE was significantly higher than the production of NO by splenocytes of control mice. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results described above, BAE, or biologically active molecules purified from it, should be further investigated as a possible adjuvant, in association or not with aluminium compounds, for the preferential induction of Th1-dependent immune responses against different antigens in distinct murine strains and animal species.

Description of the immatures of the ant, Myrmelachista catharinae.

The Neotropical ant genus Myrmelachista Roger comprises 69 described species and subspecies, and still is a poorly studied group. Larvae play a paramount role in colony nutrition in social hymenopterans and bear considerable value in the reconstruction of group phylogenies, however, they are generally neglected. Larvae of different instars of Myrmelachista catharinae Mayr (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are herein described in detail by light and scanning electron microscopy. The number of larval instars was estimated as three based on the frequency distribution of maximum head capsule widths. The described larvae confirmed some traits typical of the genus: general shape of body and mandibles, general aspect and distribution of body hairs, and the number of sensilla on the palps and galea. Differently from other Myrmelachista larvae previously described, M. catharinae presented two distinct kinds of second instars, some additional types of body hairs, different number of antennal sensilla, and a distinct labrum shape. M. catharinae presented ten pairs of spiracles, which is the first record for this genus.

Patterns of Ant Diversity in the Natural Grasslands of Southern Brazil.

In the south of Brazil, grasslands are naturally widespread over two different biomes, the Pampa in the southernmost region and within the Atlantic Forest in the northern portions. The natural grasslands of the state of Paraná comprise a very particular physiognomy composed of two distinct formations: the Campos Gerais and the grasslands of the southwest. The first is located in the edge of the second plateau of Paraná state, comprising a great diversity of environments. The grasslands of the southwest are more homogeneous, with a continuous herbaceous stratum dominating the landscape. In this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate the patterns of species richness and composition of ants, an ecologically prominent group, along the natural grasslands of Paraná. We also intended to compare the faunal similarity between the two different grassland formations. For that, four different Conservation Unities were sampled along a latitudinal gradient. A remarkable total of 245 ant species was recorded, and the results indicate that species richness decreases as latitude increases along the grasslands of Paraná. There were clear differences in species composition between these two grasslands formations, given the significative number of endemic species in each of these two grassland formations. Ten species were recorded for the first time in the state of Paraná, of which three also for the first time in the Southern Region of Brazil. Overall, our study contributes to a better understanding about the diversity and composition of ant communities in subtropical grasslands.

Head and mandible shapes are highly integrated yet represent two distinct modules within and among worker subcastes of the ant genus Pheidole.

Ants use their mandibles for a wide variety of tasks related to substrate manipulation, brood transport, food processing, and colony defense. Due to constraints involved in colony upkeep, ants evolved a remarkable diversity of mandibular forms, often related to specific roles such as specialized hunting and seed milling. Considering these varied functional demands, we focused on understanding how the mandible and head shape vary within and between Pheidole subcastes. Using x-ray microtomography and 3D geometric morphometrics, we tested whether these structures are integrated and modular, and how ecological predictors influenced these features. Our results showed that mandible and head shape of majors and minor workers tend to vary from robust to slender, with some more complex changes related to the mandibular base. Additionally, we found that head and mandible shapes are characterized by a high degree of integration, but with little correlation with feeding and nesting habits. Our results suggest that a combination of structural (allometric) constraints and the behavioral flexibility conferred by subcaste dimorphism might largely buffer selective pressures that would otherwise lead to a fine-tuning between ecological conditions and morphological adaptation.

A Brief Photocatalytic Study of ZnO Containing Cerium towards Ibuprofen Degradation.

Ibuprofen (IBU) is one of the most-sold anti-inflammatory drugs in the world, and its residues can reach aquatic systems, causing serious health and environmental problems. Strategies are used to improve the photocatalytic activity of zinc oxide (ZnO), and thosethat involvethe inclusion of metalhave received special attention. The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of the parameters and toxicity of a photoproduct using zinc oxide that contains cerium (ZnO-Ce) for the photodegradation of ibuprofen. The parameters include the influence of the photocatalyst concentration (0.5, 0.5, and 1.5 g L-1) as well as the effects of pH (3, 7, and 10), the effect of H2O2, and radical scavengers. The photocatalyst was characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy, Transmission electron microscopy, Raman, X-Ray Diffraction, surface area, and diffuse reflectance. The photocatalytic activity of ibuprofen was evaluated in an aqueous solution under UV light for 120 min. The structural characterization by XRD and SEM elucidated the fact that the nanoparticle ZnO contained cerium. The band gap value was 3.31 eV. The best experimental conditions for the photodegradation of IBU were 60% obtained in an acidic condition using 0.50 g L-1 of ZnO-Ce in a solution of 20 ppm of IBU. The presence of hydrogen peroxide favored the photocatalysis process. ZnO-Ce exhibited good IBU degradation activity even after three photocatalytic cycles under UV light. The hole plays akey role in the degradation process of ibuprofen. The toxicity of photolyzed products was monitored against Artemia salina (bioindicator) and did not generate toxic metabolites. Therefore, this work provides a strategic design to improve ZnO-Ce photocatalysts for environmental remediation.

Ants of the State of Par, Brazil: a historical and comprehensive dataset of a key biodiversity hotspot in the Amazon Basin.

The state of Par in northern Brazil is located entirely within the Amazon Basin and harbors a great diversity of landscape and vegetation types that support high levels of biodiversity. Here, we provide a comprehensive inventory of ant species and their distribution in Par. This regional list is based on an extensive review of species records from published and unpublished sources covering a period of 134 years (18862020) and includes the five most representative ant collections in Brazil. In total, we documented 12 subfamilies, 90 genera and 753 ant species, including 97 species recorded for the first time in Par and 12 species newly reported in Brazil. Sampling effort across the state is highly uneven, and most records may be associated with research areas near the state capital, mining areas, hydroelectric dams, and research field stations run by the state or universities. In addition, our results suggest a strong bias in ant collection in Par in terms of proximity of sampled sites to access routes, such as roads and rivers. We also found that species records were highly unevenly distributed based on areas of endemism within the Amazon, vegetation type, and protected areas within the state. Ant surveys are still lacking from most protected areas of Par, and further sampling is urgently needed in view of the current trend of expansion of major infrastructure projects and natural resource harvesting within protected areas of Par. Our database represents an extremely valuable and rich source of information for further studies on ant biodiversity and conservation in the Amazon Basin.

Taxonomic revision of the genus Prionopelta Mayr, 1866 (Formicidae: Amblyoponinae) for the Neotropical region.

The ant genus Prionopelta Mayr, 1866 is revised for the Neotropics. Morphological traits combined with geographical data led to the recognition of eight species, four of them described here as new: Prionopelta dubia sp. n., Prionopelta menininha sp. n., Prionopelta minuta sp. n., and Prionopelta tapatia sp. n. Prionopelta marthae Forel, 1909 is proposed as a new junior synonym of Prionopelta antillana Forel, 1909. External morphological descriptions of the worker caste for all species are provided, as well as for some of the males and queens, mostly described here for the first time. Identification keys for all known castes, distribution maps and high-resolution illustrations are supplied for all species.

Additions to the taxonomy of Gnamptogenys Roger (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ectatomminae) with an updated key to the New World species.

This study aimed to raise and address nomenclatural issues surrounding Neotropical species in the genus Gnamptogenys, in addition to describing new species accumulated in myrmecological collections. New and reinstated names recognized here include G. pernambucana (Santschi) sp. rev., stat.n., G. lenis sp. n., G. latistriata sp. n., and G. avus sp. n. The queen and intercaste of G. lavra Lattke and the queen of G. pernambucana are described for the first time. For these five species we provide complete descriptions and diagnoses, comments on taxonomy and natural history, distribution data, and high-resolution images, including the first images of G. lavra. An updated identification key for all the Neotropical species of Gnamptogenys is also provided, including the new and revived species as well as G. aspera Morgan and G. pilosa Lattke, not present in previous keys for the genus.

Using controlled vocabularies in anatomical terminology: A case study with Strumigenys (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Morphological studies of insects can help us to understand the concomitant or sequential functionality of complex structures and may be used to hypothetize distinct levels of phylogenetic relationship among groups. Traditional morphological works, generally, have encompassed a set of elements, including descriptions of structures and their respective conditions, literature references and images, all combined in a single document. Fast forward to the digital era, it is now possible to release this information simultaneously but also independently as data sets linked to the original publication in an external environment. In order to link data from various fields of knowledge, disseminating morphological information in an open environment, it is important to use tools that enhance interoperability. For example, semantic annotations facilitate the dissemination and retrieval of phenotypic data in digital environments. The integration of semantic (i.e. web-based) components with anatomic treatments can be used to generate a traditional description in natural language along with a set of semantic annotations. The ant genus Strumigenys currently comprises about 840 described species distributed worldwide. In the Neotropical region, almost 200 species are currently known, but it is possible that much of the species' diversity there remains unexplored and undescribed. The morphological diversity in the genus is high, reflecting an extreme generic reclassification that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Here we define the anatomical concepts in this highly diverse group of ants using semantic annotations to enrich the anatomical ontologies available online, focussing on the definition of terms through subjacent conceptualization.

Taxonomic revision of the genus Probolomyrmex Mayr, 1901 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Proceratiinae) for the Neotropical Region.

We revise the taxonomy of the ant genus Probolomyrmex for the Neotropical region. Eight species are recognized, four of them already known: P. boliviensis, P. brujitae, P. guanacastensis, and P. petiolatus. Four new species are described: P. cegua sp. n., P. dentinodis sp. n., P. kelleri sp. n. and P. lamellatus sp. n. We present complete descriptions and redescriptions for all the species, including diagnoses, comments on the taxonomic history and biology, high-quality images, and scanning electron microscope micrographs for diagnostic anatomic structures. In addition, distribution maps and an illustrated identification key are provided.