The Tacrolimus Concentration/Dose Ratio Does Not Predict Early Complications After Kidney Transplantation.

Early-on post kidney transplantation, there is a high risk of graft rejection and opportunistic viral infections. A low tacrolimus concentration/dose (C/D) ratio as a surrogate marker of fast tacrolimus metabolism has been established for risk stratification 3 months post-transplantation (M3). However, many adverse events occurring earlier might be missed, and stratification at 1 month post-transplantation (M1) has not been investigated. We retrospectively analyzed case data from 589 patients who had undergone kidney transplantation between 2011 and 2021 at three German transplant centers. Tacrolimus metabolism was estimated by use of the C/D ratio at M1, M3, M6, and M12. C/D ratios increased substantially during the year, particularly between M1 and M3. Many viral infections and most graft rejections occurred before M3. Neither at M1 nor at M3 was a low C/D ratio associated with susceptibility to BKV viremia or BKV nephritis. A low C/D ratio at M1 could not predict acute graft rejections or impaired kidney function, whereas at M3 it was significantly associated with subsequent rejections and impairment of kidney function. In summary, most rejections occur before M3, but a low C/D ratio at M1 does not identify patients at risk, limiting the predictive utility of this stratification approach.

Improvement of renal function after transcatheter aortic valve replacement and its impact on survival.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease as well as acute kidney injury are associated with adverse outcomes after transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). However, little is known about the prognostic implications of an improvement in renal function after TAVR. METHODS: Renal improvement (RI) was defined as a decrease in postprocedural creatinine in µmol/l of ≥1% compared to its preprocedural baseline value. A propensity score representing the likelihood of RI was calculated to define patient groups which were comparable regarding potential confounders (age, sex, BMI, NYHA classification, STS score, log. EuroSCORE, history of atrial fibrillation/atrial flutter, pulmonary disease, previous stroke, CRP, creatinine, hsTNT and NT-proBNP). The cohort was stratified into 5 quintiles according to this propensity score and the survival time after TAVR was compared within each subgroup. RESULTS: Patients in quintile 5 (n = 93) had the highest likelihood for RI. They were characterized by higher creatinine, lower eGFR, higher NYHA class, higher NT-proBNP, being mostly female and having shorter overall survival time. Within quintile 5, patients without RI had significantly shorter survival compared to patients with RI (p = 0.002, HR = 0.32, 95% CI = [0.15-0.69]). There was no survival time difference between patients with and without RI in the whole cohort (p = 0.12) and in quintiles 1 to 4 (all p > 0.16). Analyses of specific subgroups showed that among patients with NYHA class IV, those with RI also had a significant survival time benefit (p < 0.001, HR = 0.15; 95%-CI = [0.05-0.44]) compared to patients without RI. CONCLUSIONS: We here describe a propensity score-derived specific subgroup of patients in which RI after TAVR correlated with a significant survival benefit.

Failure of first meningococcal vaccination in patients with atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome treated with eculizumab.

BACKGROUND: The C5 complement inhibitor eculizumab is a first-line treatment in atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS). Therapy with eculizumab is associated with a highly increased risk for meningococcal infection. Therefore, vaccination is highly recommended before beginning treatment. Efficacy of quadrivalent meningococcal vaccines (MenACWY) in patients treated with the C5 complement inhibitor eculizumab in aHUS has not yet been determined. METHODS: Patients with aHUS received one dose of a MenACWY conjugate vaccine before eculizumab treatment commenced. Bactericidal titres against meningococcal serogroups A, C, W and Y were determined using baby rabbit complement in 25 patients. RESULTS: Full immune response to meningococcal vaccination was detected in five patients (20%), while seven patients (28%) showed no immune response in any of the tested serogroups. The remaining 13 patients showed incomplete immune response with proof of protective antibody titres for one to three serogroups without perceptible preference for any serogroup. Bactericidal titres after re-vaccination were available for 17 patients. Nine patients with incomplete immune response after first vaccinations showed protective antibody titres for all serogroups after re-vaccination. Kidney function had improved in >50% of patients at the time of re-vaccination compared with the time of first vaccination and immunosuppressive therapy was only applied to re-vaccinated patients following kidney transplantation. CONCLUSIONS: Immunogenicity of first quadrivalent meninongococcal vaccination is insufficient in patients with aHUS. Booster response is promising, but incomplete. Therefore, establishing antibiotic prophylaxes seems pivotal.

Unacceptable human leucocyte antigens for organ offers in the era of organ shortage: influence on waiting time before kidney transplantation.

BACKGROUND: The assignment of human leucocyte antigens (HLAs) against which antibodies are detected as unacceptable antigens (UAGs) avoids allocation of HLA- incompatible allografts. There is uncertainty as to what extent UAGs decrease the probability of receiving a kidney offer. METHODS: Kidney transplantations in 3264 patients on the waiting lists of six German transplant centres were evaluated for a period of at least 2 years. The proportion of excluded offers due to UAGs was calculated as virtual panel-reactive antibodies (vPRAs). RESULTS: In the common Eurotransplant Kidney Allocation Scheme, the transplant probability was unaffected by vPRAs in exploratory univariate analyses. In the multivariable model, a 1% increase in vPRA values was outweighed by an additional waiting time of 2.5 weeks. The model was confirmed using an external validation cohort of 1521 patients from seven centres. If only patients with standard risk were considered (e.g. no simultaneous transplantation of other organs), only 1.3 weeks additional waiting time was needed. In the Eurotransplant Senior Program, patients with vPRA values >50% had a strongly reduced transplant probability in the unadjusted analyses. In the multivariable model, a 1% increase in vPRA values was outweighed by an additional waiting time of 5 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that the assignment of UAGs decreases the transplant probability in both main Eurotransplant allocation programs because of insufficient compensatory mechanisms. At present, for immunized patients, a prolonged waiting time has to be weighed against the increased immunologic risk due to donor-specific antibodies not assigned as UAGs.

Outcomes of patients with atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome with native and transplanted kidneys treated with eculizumab: a pooled post hoc analysis.

Atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome (aHUS) often leads to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and kidney transplantation; graft loss rates are high due to disease recurrence. A post hoc analysis of four prospective clinical trials in aHUS was performed to evaluate eculizumab, a terminal complement inhibitor, in patients with native or transplanted kidneys. The trials included 26-week treatment and extension periods. Dialysis, transplant and graft loss were evaluated. Study endpoints included complete thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) response, TMA event-free status, haematologic and renal parameters and adverse events. Of 100 patients, 74 had native kidneys and 26 in the transplant subgroup had a collective history of 38 grafts. No patients lost grafts and only one with pre-existing ESRD received a transplant on treatment. Efficacy endpoints were achieved similarly in both subgroups. After 26 weeks, mean absolute estimated glomerular filtration rate increased from baseline to 61 and 37 ml/min/1.73 m2 in native (n = 71; P < 0.0001) and transplanted kidney (n = 25; P = 0.0092) subgroups. Two patients (one/subgroup) developed meningococcal infections; both recovered, one continued therapy. Eculizumab was well tolerated. Eculizumab improved haematologic and renal outcomes in both subgroups. In patients with histories of multiple graft losses, eculizumab protected kidney function.

Rescue allocation and recipient oriented extended allocation in kidney transplantation-influence of the EUROTRANSPLANT allocation system on recipient selection and graft survival for initially nonaccepted organs.

Nonaccepted kidneys grafts enter the rescue allocation (RA) process to avoid discards. In December 2013, recipient oriented extended allocation (REAL) was introduced to improve transparency. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of REAL on recipients' selection and graft function compared to the formerly existing RA as well as to identify factors that influence graft outcome. Therefore, a multicenter study of 10 transplant centers in the same region in Germany was performed. All transplantations after RA or REAL from December 1, 2012, until December 31, 2014, with a follow-up time until December 31, 2015 were analyzed. 113 of 941 kidney transplantations were performed after RA or REAL (12%). With REAL, the number of refusals before transplantation had increased (12 ± 7.1 vs. 8.6 ± 8.6, P = 0.036), and cold ischemia time has decreased (13.6 ± 3.6 vs. 17.2 ± 4.8 h, P = 0.019). Recipients after REAL needed significantly more allocation points compared to RA to receive a kidney. One-year graft survival was comparable. If kidneys from the same donor were transplanted to two recipients at one center, the greater the difference in recipient age, the greater the difference in serum creatinine after 12 months (-0.019 mg/dl per year, P = 0.011) was, that is older recipients showed lower creatinine. REAL influences selection of the recipients compared to the former RA era for successful organ receipt. Graft function is comparable and seems to be influenced by recipient age.

Resveratrol Does Not Protect from Ischemia-Induced Acute Kidney Injury in an in Vivo Rat Model.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The natural polyphenol resveratrol (RSV) has been shown to ameliorate ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced damage. Therefore, a rat model of I/R-induced AKI equipped with intensive monitoring was utilized to examine direct renal protection by RSV in vivo. METHODS: AKI was induced by bilateral renal clamping (45 min) followed by reperfusion (3 h). Solvent-free RSV was continuously infused intravenously (0.056 and 0.28 mg/kg) in a total volume of 7 ml/kg/h starting from 30 min before renal clamping. At a mean arterial blood pressure below 70 mmHg for more than 5 min, bolus injections of 0.5 ml 0.9% NaCl solution were administered repetitively (max. 5 ml/kg/h). RESULTS: No differences could be found between normoxic control groups with/without RSV. Bilateral renal clamping and subsequent reperfusion caused a progressive rise in creatinine, cystatin C, and CK, a decrease in cellular ATP content and diuresis. Infusion of RSV increased sirtuin 1 expression after ischemia/reperfusion and was associated with decreased blood pressure during ischemia and early reperfusion accompanied by an increased requirement of bolus injections as well as with increased expression of TNFα. CONCLUSION: RSV did not exert protective effects on I/R-induced AKI in the present short-term in vivo rat model. The lack of protection is potentially connected to aggravation of blood pressure instability.

Citrate shows protective effects on cardiovascular and renal function in ischemia-induced acute kidney injury.

BACKGROUND: Ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) is one of the major causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). Citrate reduces hypoxia-induced mitochondrial energetic deficits in isolated proximal tubules. Moreover, citrate anticoagulation is now frequently used in renal replacement therapy. In the present study a rat model of I/R-induced AKI was utilized to examine renal protection by citrate in vivo. METHODS: AKI was induced by bilateral renal clamping (40 min) followed by reperfusion (3 h). Citrate was infused at three different concentrations (0.3 mmol/kg/h; 0.6 mmol/kg/h and 1.0 mmol/kg/h) continuously for 60 min before and 45 min after ischemia. Plasma calcium concentrations were kept stable by infusion of calcium gluconate. The effect of citrate was evaluated by biomonitoring, blood and plasma parameters, histopathology and tissue ATP content. RESULTS: In comparison to the normoxic control group bilateral renal ischemia led to an increase of creatinine and lactate dehydrogenase activity and a decrease in tissue ATP content and was accompanied by a drop in mean arterial blood pressure. Infusion of 1.0 mmol/kg/h citrate led to lower creatinine and reduced LDH activity compared to the I/R control group and a tendency for higher tissue ATP content. Pre-ischemic infusion of 1.0 mmol/kg/h citrate stabilized blood pressure during ischemia. CONCLUSIONS: Citrate has a protective effect during I/R-induced AKI, possibly by limiting the mitochondrial deficit as well as by beneficial cardiovascular effects. This strengthens the rationale of using citrate in continuous renal replacement therapy and encourages consideration of citrate infusion as a therapeutic treatment for AKI in humans.

High-urgency kidney transplantation in the Eurotransplant Kidney Allocation System: success or waste of organs? The Eurotransplant 15-year all-centre survey.

BACKGROUND: In the Eurotransplant Kidney Allocation System (ETKAS), transplant candidates can be considered for high-urgency (HU) status in case of life-threatening inability to undergo renal replacement therapy. Data on the outcomes of HU transplantation are sparse and the benefit is controversial. METHODS: We systematically analysed data from 898 ET HU kidney transplant recipients from 61 transplant centres between 1996 and 2010 and investigated the 5-year patient and graft outcomes and differences between relevant subgroups. RESULTS: Kidney recipients with an HU status were younger (median 43 versus 55 years) and spent less time on the waiting list compared with non-HU recipients (34 versus 54 months). They received grafts with significantly more mismatches (mean 3.79 versus 2.42; P < 0.001) and the percentage of retransplantations was remarkably higher (37.5 versus 16.7%). Patient survival (P = 0.0053) and death with a functioning graft (DwFG; P < 0.0001) after HU transplantation were significantly worse than in non-HU recipients, whereas graft outcome was comparable (P = 0.094). Analysis according to the different HU indications revealed that recipients listed HU because of an imminent lack of access for dialysis had a significantly worse patient survival (P = 0.0053) and DwFG (P = 0.0462) compared with recipients with psychological problems and suicidality because of dialysis. In addition, retransplantation had a negative impact on patient and graft outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Facing organ shortages, increasing wait times and considerable mortality on dialysis, we question the current policy of HU allocation and propose more restrictive criteria with regard to individuals with vascular complications or repeated retransplantations in order to support patients on the non-HU waiting list with a much better long-term prognosis.

Critical Deviations of Ionized Calcium Measurements When Using Blood Gas Analyzers to Monitor Citrate Dialysis.

BACKGROUND: During the course of acute kidney injury (AKI) patients may require renal replacement therapy (RRT). The preferred therapeutic measure for such patients is continuous RRT (CRRT). Anticoagulation is required to prevent clotting of the extracorporeal circuit. The actual KDIGO guidelines recommend citrate as the first line anticoagulant. METHODS: Citrate dose infused into the extracorporeal circuit should achieve an extracorporeal calcium concentration of 0.2 - 0.3 mmol/L. Here, we evaluated two blood gas analysers for their ability of covering the calcium concentration range needed for CRRT (Radiometer ABL 835; Instrumentation Laboratory GEM 4000). Measurements of iCa from 0.2 to 3.0 mmol/L were performed in aqueous 0.9% NaCl solutions with and without human serum albumin (HAS) and also in patient samples. RESULTS: Using the GEM analyser, differences of measured results to target values were low throughout the whole concentration range. Using the ABL system, the difference increased with lower target values and exceeded up to 60% at 0.2 mmol/L. The results were reproduced in patient samples. CONCLUSIONS: Measuring Ca2+ concentrations could result in an overdosing or underdosing of citrate when using an analytical method which is different to the instrument used initially to achieve the recommended concentrations. If measurement of the new method results in lower Ca2+ concentration and, therefore, reduced anticoagulation by citrate infusion this could lead to more clotting events. Overestimation of the calcium concentration by the new method in the extracorporeal circuit would result in an increased citrate dose delivered to the patient, leading to in vivo hypocalcemia and a pronouncement of citrate induced acid base derangements. Therefore, to monitor Ca2+ concentrations in CRRT during citrate anticoagulation, specific target values for each individual instrument must be established.

Which Genetic Determinants Should be Considered for Tacrolimus Dose Optimization in Kidney Transplantation? A Combined Analysis of Genes Affecting the CYP3A Locus.

BACKGROUND: Tacrolimus is established as immunosuppressant after kidney transplantation. Polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 3A5 (CYP3A5) gene contributes significantly to tacrolimus dose requirements. Recently, CYP3A4*22 was reported to additionally affect tacrolimus pharmacokinetics (PK). In addition, there are further polymorphic genes, possibly influencing CYP3A activity [pregnane x receptor NR1I2, P450 oxidoreductase (POR), and peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor alpha (PPARA)]. We aimed to investigate combined effects of these gene variants on tacrolimus maintenance dose and PK in patients with stable kidney transplantation of 2 study centers. METHODS: A total of 223 white patients (German cohort, 136; Danish cohort, 87) was included and genotyped for CYP3A5 (rs776746), CYP3A4 (rs35599367), NR1I2 (rs2276707), POR (rs1057868), and PPARA (rs4253728). Dosage and trough concentration/dose ratios were considered separately. A subset was investigated for comprehensive PK parameters. RESULTS: Tacrolimus dose, trough concentration, and trough concentration/dose ratio did not differ between the German and Danish cohort. CYP3A5*3 and CYP3A4*22 contributed to dose requirements only in the German and in the total cohort. Homozygous carriers of both variants required 4.8 ± 3.1 mg, whereas carriers of the wild types required 165% higher mean tacrolimus doses (12.5 ± 7.7 mg, P = 1.4 × 10). The PK investigation revealed only nonsignificant impact of CYP3A4 genotypes on AUC12h in CYP3A5 nonexpressers (P = 0.079, power = 57%). For the entire sample, the final multiple linear regression model for trough concentration/dose ratio included CYP3A5, CYP3A4, and age. It explained 18.3% of the interindividual variability of tacrolimus trough concentration/dose ratios (P = 8.8 × 10). CONCLUSIONS: Therapeutic drug monitoring remains essential in clinical care of patients with kidney transplantation. Genotyping of CYP3A5 and CYP3A4, however, could facilitate rapid dose finding to adapt the appropriate immunosuppressant dose, whereas other genetic factors had only little or no effect.

Derivation and validation of cutoffs for clinical use of cell cycle arrest biomarkers.

BACKGROUND: Acute kidney injury (AKI) remains a deadly condition. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-2 and insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)7 are two recently discovered urinary biomarkers for AKI. We now report on the development, and diagnostic accuracy of two clinical cutoffs for a test using these markers. METHODS: We derived cutoffs based on sensitivity and specificity for prediction of Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes Stages 2-3 AKI within 12 h using data from a previously published multicenter cohort (Sapphire). Next, we verified these cutoffs in a new study (Opal) enrolling 154 critically ill adults from six sites in the USA. RESULTS: One hundred subjects (14%) in Sapphire and 27 (18%) in Opal met the primary end point. The results of the Opal study replicated those of Sapphire. Relative risk (95% CI) in both studies for subjects testing at ≤0.3 versus >0.3-2 were 4.7 (1.5-16) and 4.4 (2.5-8.7), or 12 (4.2-40) and 18 (10-37) for ≤0.3 versus >2. For the 0.3 cutoff, sensitivity was 89% in both studies, and specificity 50 and 53%. For 2.0, sensitivity was 42 and 44%, and specificity 95 and 90%. CONCLUSIONS: Urinary [TIMP-2]•[IGFBP7] values of 0.3 or greater identify patients at high risk and those >2 at highest risk for AKI and provide new information to support clinical decision-making. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: Clintrials.gov # NCT01209169 (Sapphire) and NCT01846884 (Opal).

Non-contrast preoperative MRI for determining renal perfusion and visualizing renal arteries in potential living kidney donors at 1.5 Tesla.

Background: The aim of this work was to create and evaluate a preoperative non-contrast-enhanced (CE) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)/angiography (MRA) protocol to assess renal function and visualize renal arteries and any abnormalities in potential living kidney donors. Methods: In total, 28 subjects were examined using scintigraphy to determine renal function. In addition, 3D-pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL), a 2D-non-CE electrocardiogram-triggered radial quiescent interval slice-selective (QISS-MRA), and 4D-CE time-resolved angiography with interleaved stochastic trajectories (CE-MRA) were performed to assess renal perfusion, visualize renal arteries and detect any abnormalities. Two glomerular filtration rates [described by Gates (GFRG) and according to the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration formula (GFRCKD-EPI)]. The renal volumes were determined using both MRA techniques. Results: The mean value of regional renal blood flow (rRBF) on the right side was significantly higher than that on the left. The agreements between QISS-MRA and CE-MRA concerning the assessment of absence or presence of an aberrant artery and renal arterial stenosis were perfect. The mean renal volumes measured in the right kidney with QISS-MRA were lower than the corresponding values of CE-MRA. In contrast, the mean renal volumes measured in the left kidney with both MRA techniques were similar. The correlation between the GFRG and rRBF was compared in the same manner as that between GFRCKD-EPI and rRBF. Conclusion: The combination of pCASL and QISS-MRA constitute a reliable preoperative protocol with a total measurement time of <10 min without the potential side effects of gadolinium-based contrast agents or radiation exposure.

Risk Stratification Before Living Donor Kidney Transplantation in Patients With Preformed Donor-specific Antibodies by Different Crossmatch Methods.

Background: Preformed donor-specific HLA antibodies (DSA) are a well-known risk factor in kidney transplantation. There is still considerable debate, however, about the optimal risk stratification among patients with preformed DSA. Additionally, data on the prognostic value of different crossmatch assays in DSA-positive patients are scarce. Methods: DSA-positive living kidney transplant recipients were selected from a multicenter study examining 4233 consecutive renal transplants. An additional 7 patients from 2 further centers were included. Flow cytometric crossmatches (FXM), Luminex-based crossmatches, and virtual crossmatches based on C1q- and C3d-binding antibodies (C1qXM and C3dXM) were performed retrospectively using pretransplant sera and lymphocytes isolated from fresh samples. These samples were obtained from 44 donor and recipient pairs from 12 centers. Clinical outcome data and the control group without DSA were compiled from the previous study and were supplemented by data on 10-y death-censored graft survival (10yGS). Results: Between 19% (C3dXM) and 46% (FXM) of crossmatches were positive. Crossmatch-positive patients showed high incidences of antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) within 6 mo (up to 60% in B-cell FXM+ patients). The incidence of AMR in crossmatch-negative patients ranged between 5% (FXM-) and 13% (C1qXM-). 10yGS was significantly impaired in patients with positive T-cell FXM and total FXM compared with both patients without DSA and those with DSA with negative FXM. Conclusions: Especially FXM are useful for risk stratification, as the outcome of DSA-positive, FXM-negative patients is similar to that of DSA-negative patients, whereas FXM-positive patients have both more AMR and decreased 10yGS. Because of their lower sensitivity, the significance of Luminex-based crossmatches, C1qXM, and C3dXM would have to be examined in patients with stronger DSA.

Discovery and validation of cell cycle arrest biomarkers in human acute kidney injury.

INTRODUCTION: Acute kidney injury (AKI) can evolve quickly and clinical measures of function often fail to detect AKI at a time when interventions are likely to provide benefit. Identifying early markers of kidney damage has been difficult due to the complex nature of human AKI, in which multiple etiologies exist. The objective of this study was to identify and validate novel biomarkers of AKI. METHODS: We performed two multicenter observational studies in critically ill patients at risk for AKI - discovery and validation. The top two markers from discovery were validated in a second study (Sapphire) and compared to a number of previously described biomarkers. In the discovery phase, we enrolled 522 adults in three distinct cohorts including patients with sepsis, shock, major surgery, and trauma and examined over 300 markers. In the Sapphire validation study, we enrolled 744 adult subjects with critical illness and without evidence of AKI at enrollment; the final analysis cohort was a heterogeneous sample of 728 critically ill patients. The primary endpoint was moderate to severe AKI (KDIGO stage 2 to 3) within 12 hours of sample collection. RESULTS: Moderate to severe AKI occurred in 14% of Sapphire subjects. The two top biomarkers from discovery were validated. Urine insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7 (IGFBP7) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2), both inducers of G1 cell cycle arrest, a key mechanism implicated in AKI, together demonstrated an AUC of 0.80 (0.76 and 0.79 alone). Urine [TIMP-2]·[IGFBP7] was significantly superior to all previously described markers of AKI (P <0.002), none of which achieved an AUC >0.72. Furthermore, [TIMP-2]·[IGFBP7] significantly improved risk stratification when added to a nine-variable clinical model when analyzed using Cox proportional hazards model, generalized estimating equation, integrated discrimination improvement or net reclassification improvement. Finally, in sensitivity analyses [TIMP-2]·[IGFBP7] remained significant and superior to all other markers regardless of changes in reference creatinine method. CONCLUSIONS: Two novel markers for AKI have been identified and validated in independent multicenter cohorts. Both markers are superior to existing markers, provide additional information over clinical variables and add mechanistic insight into AKI. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT01209169.

Associations of smoking with alterations in renal hemodynamics may depend on sex--investigations in potential kidney donors.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for renal damage, but little is known about subclinical effects of smoking on renal hemodynamics and parameters of renal function in humans. We examined the associations of smoking with systemic and renal hemodynamics and renal function parameters in healthy individuals. METHODS: Data from 196 potential living kidney donors were analysed retrospectively. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) and creatinine clearance had been measured. We additionally calculated parameters of renal hemodynamics. Data were analyzed for the effects of smoking and sex dependent on age and MAP. RESULTS: Systemic and renal hemodynamic parameters did not differ between smokers and non-smokers. In non-smokers of both sexes MAP was negatively correlated with ERPF, and higher MAP was associated with increased renal vascular resistance and with afferent arteriolar resistance, with glomerular pressure (PG) remaining constant. However, in male, but not in female smokers, ERPF and PG increased with MAP. A correlation of age with a steeper decline in ERPF in male smokers was lost in multiple regression analysis. CONCLUSIONS: As compared to women, smoking men may exhibit an increased glomerular hydrostatic pressure, which is a known promoter of kidney damage.

Adverse effects of α-ketoglutarate/malate in a rat model of acute kidney injury.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is the most common kidney disease in hospitalized patients with high mortality. Ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) is one of the major causes of AKI. The combination of α-ketoglutarate+malate (αKG/MAL) showed the ability to reduce hypoxia-induced damage to isolated proximal tubules. The present study utilizes a rat model of I/R-induced AKI accompanied by intensive biomonitoring to examine whether αKG/MAL provides protection in vivo. AKI was induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats by bilateral renal clamping (40 min) followed by reperfusion (240 min). αKG/MAL was infused continuously for 60 min before and 45 min after ischemia. Normoxic and I/R control groups received 0.9% NaCl solution. The effect of αKG/MAL was evaluated by biomonitoring, blood and plasma parameters, histopathology, and immunohistochemical staining for kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), as well as by determination of tissue ATP and nonesterified fatty acid concentrations. Intravenous infusion of αKG/MAL at a cumulative dose of 1 mmol/kg each (146 mg/kg αKG and 134 mg/kg MAL) did not prevent I/R-induced increases in plasma creatinine, histopathological alterations, or cortical ATP depletion. On the contrary, the most notable adverse affect in animals receiving αKG/MAL was the decrease in mean arterial blood pressure, which was also accompanied by a reduction in heart rate. Supplementation with αKG/MAL, which is very protective against hypoxia-induced injury in isolated proximal tubules, does not protect against I/R-induced renal injury in vivo, possibly due to cardiovascular depressive effects.

Aberrant expression of the negative costimulator PD-1 on T cells in granulomatosis with polyangiitis.

OBJECTIVE: Persistent T-cell activation is frequently observed in granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA, formerly known as Wegener's granulomatosis). T-cell activation is usually balanced by negative costimulatory molecules. The negative costimulator programmed death receptor-1 (PD-1) and its relevance to T-cell immunity have not been studied so far in GPA. Thus it is the aim of the study to characterize the role of PD-1 in GPA. METHODS: Thirty-two patients suffering from GPA and 19 age-matched healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled. T-lymphocyte subsets from peripheral blood were analysed by flow cytometry for the expression of PD-1. The frequency of memory T cells and T cells producing pro-inflammatory cytokines was determined. Renal biopsies from GPA patients were stained for CD3 and PD-1. RESULTS: PD-1 expression was increased on T-helper cells (Th cells) from GPA patients as compared with HCs. In addition, parameters of persistent T-cell activation and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines were positively associated with numbers of PD-1(+) Th cells in patients but not in HCs. Latent infection with CMV seemed to enhance PD-1 expression on CD4(+) and CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells. Interestingly, expression of PD-1 on CD4(+)CD25(+)T cells was inversely correlated with relapse rate. Importantly, lesional T cells were mostly lacking PD-1. CONCLUSIONS: The expression of the negative costimulator PD-1 is altered in GPA and might counterbalance persistent T-cell activation.

Efficacy and safety of regional citrate anticoagulation in liver transplant patients requiring post-operative renal replacement therapy.

BACKGROUND: Liver transplant patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) requiring continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) early post-operatively are at high risk for bleeding. Using heparin for anticoagulation during CRRT may contribute to the increased bleeding risk. Regional anticoagulation with citrate may decrease the risk of bleeding. However, citrate anticoagulation may be associated with metabolic complications in patients with liver impairment. The aim of the study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of citrate anticoagulation in liver transplant patients. METHODS: All liver transplant recipients transplanted between November 2004 and August 2007, requiring CRRT and using citrate as the anticoagulant were included in this retrospective study. Demographic data, CRRT specific and metabolic data were collected and analysed. RESULTS: Sixty-eight patients (40 male/28 female) with a mean age of 47.1±11.8 years and a Model of End-stage Liver Disease score of 23±9 developed post-operative AKI requiring CRRT using citrate as the anticoagulant. The median duration on CRRT was 8 days (range 1-39 days) with a mean circuit life of 22.7±14.6 h. There was no relevant time trend of serum sodium, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate and pH values during CRRT. Bleeding occurred in 8 of 68 (11.7%) patients during CRRT. CONCLUSION: Regional citrate anticoagulation for CRRT in the early post-operative period after liver transplantation is effective and safe. Therefore, the general exclusion of citrate anticoagulation during CRRT in patients after liver transplantation is not justified.

Reduction of chronic graft injury with a new HTK-based preservation solution in a murine heart transplantation model.

OBJECTIVE: Aim of this study was to evaluate a new histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate (HTK)-based preservation solution on chronic isograft injury in comparison to traditional HTK solution. METHODS: Hearts of C57BL/6J (H-2b) mice were stored for 15 h in 0-4 °C cold preservation solution and then transplanted heterotopically into C57BL/6J (H-2b) mice. Three groups were evaluated: HTK, the base solution of a new preservation solution and hearts without cold ischemia (control). Time to restoration of heartbeat was measured (re-beating time). Strength of the heartbeat was palpated daily and scored on a 4-level scale (palpation score). Animals were sacrificed after 60 days of observation (24 h for TGF-ß expression). The transplanted hearts were evaluated histologically for myocardial damage, vasculopathy and interstitial fibrosis. TGF-ß expression was assessed immunohistologically. All investigators were blinded to the groups. ANOVA and LSD post hoc test were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: The re-beating time was significantly shorter in hearts stored in the new solution (10.3±2.6 min vs. HTK 14.2±4.1 min; p<0.05). The palpation score was significantly higher in hearts stored in the new solution (2.3±0.4 vs. HTK 1.6±0.5; p<0.01). Hearts stored in the new solution showed a lower myocardial injury score (1.8±0.2 vs. HTK 2.2±0.7), less interstitial fibrosis (4.8±1.9% vs. HTK 8.5±3.8%, p<0.05), less vasculopathy (14.7±6.9% vs. 22.0±23.2%; p=0.06) and lower TGF-ß1-expression (6.6±1.4% vs. HTK 12.0±4.6%). CONCLUSION: The new HTK-based solution reduces the chronic isograft injury. This protective effect is likely achieved through several modifications and supplements into the new solution like N-acetyl-L-histidine, glycine, alanine, arginine and sucrose.