Making Graphene Nanoribbons Photoluminescent.

We demonstrate the alignment-preserving transfer of parallel graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) onto insulating substrates. The photophysics of such samples is characterized by polarized Raman and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopies. The Raman scattered light and the PL are polarized along the GNR axis. The Raman cross section as a function of excitation energy has distinct excitonic peaks associated with transitions between the one-dimensional parabolic subbands. We find that the PL of GNRs is intrinsically low but can be strongly enhanced by blue laser irradiation in ambient conditions or hydrogenation in ultrahigh vacuum. These functionalization routes cause the formation of sp3 defects in GNRs. We demonstrate the laser writing of luminescent patterns in GNR films for maskless lithography by the controlled generation of defects. Our findings set the stage for further exploration of the optical properties of GNRs on insulating substrates and in device geometries.

CD1b is expressed in multiple sclerosis lesions.

Recent observations have shown that CD1 molecules act as restriction elements in the presentation of antigens to specialized subsets of T cells. To examine the expression of CD1 molecules in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions, frozen sections of central nervous system (CNS) tissues from nine MS and three other neurological disease (OND) patients, one patient with Wilson's disease, and one non-neurological control were stained by immunocytochemistry. In chronic-active MS lesions, CD1b immunoreactivity was prominent on perivascular inflammatory cells whereas macrophages within the lesion showed little reactivity. At the lesion edge, intense immunoreactivity for CD1b was found on hypertrophic astrocytes. High level expression of CD1b in MS lesions was found to colocalize with the presence of GM-CSF in astrocytes. In chronic-silent lesions, CD1b expression was found on only a few perivascular astrocytic foot processes and the occasional perivascular macrophage. CD1b was not found in the tissues studied for control purposes. In contrast, MHC class II expression was detected on microglia in all tissues examined. The relatively low level expression of CD1b in normal-appearing tissues, chronic-silent lesions and in the OND controls supports the conclusion that the expression of CD1b in active MS lesions is significantly upregulated and could contribute to lesion development.

Modulation of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: effect of altered peptide ligand on chemokine and chemokine receptor expression.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a T helper 1 (Th1) cell mediated demyelinating disease and the principal animal model for multiple sclerosis. Spinal cords from SJL mice primed with proteolipid protein peptide 139-151 (pPLP) expressed the chemokines RANTES, MCP-1, MIP-2, KC, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, Mig, and fractalkine. We also identified IP-10 in these samples and described a sequence polymorphism in this transcript. Chemokine expression was specific for tissues of the central nervous system. MCP-1, IP-10, and MIP-2 RNA expression significantly correlated with clinical score. Chemokine receptor expression generally correlated with ligand expression. pPLP-primed mice expressed the Th1-associated markers CCR5 and CXCR3 on mononuclear cells. In addition, cells expressing CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR4, CCR8, and CXCR2 were detected. Here we demonstrate that altered peptide ligand (APL)-induced protection from EAE was accompanied by modulation of chemokine and chemokine receptor expression. Spinal cord tissue sections from APL-protected mice showed greatly reduced levels of all chemokines and of CCR1, CCR5, CCR8, CXCR2 and CXCR3. The Th2-associated chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR4 were found in protected mice, supporting the hypothesis that Th1 but not Th2 cells are down-regulated by APL treatment. This report concludes that chemokines and chemokine receptors can be useful tools to follow modulation of autoimmune disease.

Elimination of blood-derived macrophages inhibits the release of interleukin-1 and the entry of leukocytes into the cerebrospinal fluid in experimental pneumococcal meningitis.

Parameters of inflammation during pneumococcal meningitis were determined in rabbits after monocyte elimination by dichloromethylene diphosphonate (Cl(2)MDP)-containing mannosylated liposomes in comparison with untreated controls. Monocyte depletion reduced the migration of white blood cells into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (medians: 42 versus 2146/mm3 at 18 h, 323 versus 7413/mm3 at 24 h p.i., p < 0.01). CSF IL-1beta concentrations were lower in depleted animals (379 versus 3282 pg/ml, 24 h p.i., p < 0.01), whereas TNF-alpha concentrations were not different. Monocyte-depleted animals lost body temperature during the experiment carried out in anaesthesia (p = 0.01) indicating that macrophages are necessary for thermogenesis during meningitis.

Central nervous system TNFalpha-mRNA expression during rabbit experimental pneumococcal meningitis.

In pneumococcal meningitis inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) are produced in large quantities and play a major role in pathogenesis. It is not known exactly which cells produce these mediators during infection. We investigated the localisation of TNFalpha-mRNA in the central nervous system (CNS) by in situ hybridisation during experimental Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis. TNF-positive cells were detected only in inflammatory infiltrates within the meninges. Cells within the brain parenchyma and the choroid plexus were completely negative. After monocyte depletion, no TNFalpha-mRNA positive cells were detected in the CNS. These findings suggest that TNFalpha in pneumococcal meningitis is produced in the CNS mainly by blood-derived, infiltrating monocytes.

S100B in the cerebrospinal fluid--a marker for glial damage in the rabbit model of pneumococcal meningitis.

The rabbit model provides an important experimental setting for the evaluation of antibiotic agents against pneumococcal meningitis. One of the primary targets of this model is the study of neuronal and glial cell damage in bacterial meningitis. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate whether a significant increase of S100B in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as an indicator of white matter damage could be observed in this meningitis model. Seven rabbits were infected intracisternally with S. pneumoniae, and CSF S100B concentrations were examined serially before infection, at 12h, 14h, 17h, 20h, and at 24h after infection. The course of CSF S100B increase and its relation to other parameters of brain tissue destruction and CSF inflammation were measured. Axonal damage was visualized by amyloid precursor protein (APP) immunostaining and demyelination by Luxol Fast Blue/Periodic Acid Schiff (LFB-PAS) stain. In each animal, we observed a distinct rise in S100B concentration in the CSF due to pneumococcal meningitis. We conclude that the CSF concentration of the glial S100B protein can be used as an additional parameter for future interventional studies focusing on glial cell damage in the rabbit model of bacterial meningitis.

Macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and KC induce chemokine production by mouse astrocytes.

Astrocytes are specialized cells of the CNS that are implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. In acute and relapsing-remitting experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, the neutrophil chemoattractant CXC chemokines macrophage-inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 and KC are associated with reactive astrocytes in the parenchyma. In vitro treatment of primary astrocyte cultures with nanomolar concentrations of MIP-2 or KC markedly up-regulated expression of the monocyte/T cell chemoattractants monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, inflammatory protein-10, and RANTES by a mechanism that includes stabilization of mRNA. Production of TNF-alpha and IL-6 transcripts were also noted, as was autocrine induction of MIP-2 and KC message. In addition, low levels of MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta were induced following treatment with MIP-2 or KC. These effects are specific to astrocytes as MIP-2 treatment of microglial cells failed to elicit chemokine production. The astrocyte chemokine receptor for MIP-2 has 2.5 nM affinity for ligand. Astrocytes from CXCR2-deficient mice still respond to KC and MIP-2, indicating the presence of an alternative or novel high affinity receptor for these ligands. We propose that this KC/MIP-2 chemokine cascade may contribute to the persistence of mononuclear cell infiltration in demyelinating autoimmune diseases.

Limited efficacy of pentoxifylline as anti-inflammatory agent in experimental pneumococcal meningitis.

Dexamethasone appears to show some adverse side-effects as adjunctive anti-inflammatory agent in bacterial meningitis. For this reason, we tested the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effect of pentoxifylline administered 15 min before starting antibiotic treatment with ceftriaxone (n = 10) versus antibiotic therapy alone (n = 9) in the rabbit model of pneumococcal meningitis. Pentoxifylline lowered the medians of leucocyte density, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and lactate in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), but only leucocyte migration into the subarachnoid space was significantly inhibited 8 h after initiation of therapy (P = 0.01). CSF protein, brain water content, and the entry of ceftriaxone into CSF were not influenced by pentoxifylline. The density of neuronal apoptoses in the dentate gyrus was slightly lower in animals receiving pentoxifylline than in those treated with ceftriaxone only. The median concentration of neuron-specific enolase in CSF was lower in the pentoxifylline-treated group, but the difference was not significant. In conclusion, pentoxifylline showed some anti-inflammatory activity in pneumococcal meningitis, but the substance failed significantly to reduce neuronal damage.

RANTES-induced chemokine cascade in dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DC) are the most potent APCs and the principal activators of naive T cells. We now report that chemokines can serve as activating agents for immature DC. Murine bone marrow-derived DC respond to the CC chemokine RANTES (10-100 ng/ml) by production of proinflammatory mediators. RANTES induces rapid expression of transcripts for the CXC chemokines KC and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2, the CC chemokines MIP-1beta and MIP-1alpha, and the cytokines TNF-alpha and IL-6. Synthesis of KC, IL-6, and TNF-alpha proteins were also demonstrated. After 4 h, autoinduction of RANTES transcripts was observed. These responses are chemokine specific. Although DC demonstrated weak responses to eotaxin, DC failed to respond to other chemokines including KC, MIP-2, stromal-derived factor-1alpha, MIP-1beta, MIP-1alpha, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, T cell activation gene 3, or thymus-derived chemotactic agent 4. In addition, RANTES treatment up-regulated expression of an orphan chemokine receptor termed Eo1. Chemokine induction was also observed after treatment of splenic DC and neonatal microglia with RANTES, but not after treatment of thymocytes or splenocytes depleted of adherent cells. TNF-alpha-treated DC lose responsiveness to RANTES. DC from mice deficient for CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 respond to RANTES, indicating that none of these receptors are exclusively used to initiate the chemokine cascade. RANTES-mediated chemokine amplification in DC may prolong inflammatory responses and shape the microenvironment, potentially enhancing acquired and innate immune responses.

The expression of TAPA (CD81) correlates with the reactive response of astrocytes in the developing rat CNS.

During the development of the brain, astrocytes acquire the ability to become reactive and form a scar. This change in the astrocytes occurs at approximately the same time that there is a decrease in the regenerative capacity of the CNS. Previous work from our laboratory had revealed that TAPA (Target of Anti-Proliferative Antibody, also known as CD81) is associated with reactive gliosis and the glial scar. TAPA is a member of the tetraspan family of proteins that appears to be associated with the regulation of cellular behavior. In order to define the role of TAPA in relation to the developmentally regulated CNS response to injury, we examined the levels of TAPA and GFAP immunoreactivity in rat pups that received a penetrating cerebral cortical injury. All of the animals injured at postnatal day 9 (PND 9), PND 18, or as adults, exhibited reactive gliosis scar formation when they were sacrificed 10 days after the cortical injury. Of the nine animals injured at PND 2, only three displayed reactive gliosis and scar formation. The remaining six rat pups had either a modest gliotic response or no detectable gliosis. The level of TAPA at the site of injury mimicked the reactive gliosis as defined by GFAP immunoreactivity. In all of the rats with a glial scar, there was a dramatic upregulation of TAPA that is spatially restricted to the reactive astrocytes. These results suggest that the upregulation of TAPA is an integral component of glial scar formation.

Abundant empty class II MHC molecules on the surface of immature dendritic cells.

A monoclonal antibody specific for the empty conformation of class II MHC molecules revealed the presence of abundant empty molecules on the surface of spleen- and bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DC) among various types of antigen-presenting cells. The empty class II MHC molecules are developmentally regulated and expressed predominantly on immature DC. They can capture peptide antigens directly from the extracellular medium and present bound peptides to antigen-specific T lymphocytes. The ability of the empty cell-surface class II MHC proteins to bind peptides and present them to T cells without intracellular processing can serve to extend the spectrum of antigens able to be presented by DC, consistent with their role as sentinels in the immune system.

Trovafloxacin delays the antibiotic-induced inflammatory response in experimental pneumococcal meningitis.

This study evaluates the ability of the new fluoroquinolone trovafloxacin to attenuate the inflammatory burst known to occur after initiation of antibiotic treatment in pneumococcal meningitis. After exposure to trovafloxacin or ceftriaxone for 3 h in vitro, Streptococcus pneumoniae was injected intracisternally (i.c.) into rabbits every 3 h over 9 h (n = 6 for each antibiotic). Ceftriaxone-treated S. pneumoniae induced consistently higher CSF leucocyte counts (median 2568/microL versus 543/microL at 6 h; P = 0.03; 4560/microL versus 2207/microL at 18 h; P = 0.03) than trovafloxacin-treated bacteria. Meningitis induced in rabbits by i.c. injection of live S. pneumoniae was treated with equal doses of trovafloxacin or ceftriaxone i.v. (ten per group). The bactericidal rates of both antibacterial agents in CSF were almost identical. In comparison with ceftriaxone, trovafloxacin resulted in lower tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta) CSF levels 2 h after the initiation of treatment (TNF levels, median 26 U/mL versus 141 U/mL; P = 0.02; IL-1beta levels 455 pg/mL versus 1399 pg/mL; P = 0.02). Twelve hours after initiation of therapy, however, TNF and IL-1beta were higher in trovafloxacin-treated animals (TNF, 61 U/mL versus 7 U/mL; P = 0.001; IL-1beta, 4320 pg/mL versus 427 pg/mL; P = 0.006). The increase in CSF lactate was less during trovafloxacin therapy than with ceftriaxone (median: 2.0 mmol/L versus 4.0 mmol/L; P = 0.03). In conclusion, S. pneumoniae treated in vitro with trovafloxacin induced less CSF leucocytosis than ceftriaxone-treated S. pneumoniae. After i.c. inoculation of live S. pneumoniae, trovafloxacin therapy delayed, but did not inhibit, the release of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-1beta, probably by slowing the liberation of bacterial cell wall components into the subarachnoid space.

Intravenous granulocyte colony-stimulating factor increases the release of tumour necrosis factor and interleukin-1beta into the cerebrospinal fluid, but does not inhibit the growth of Streptococcus pneumoniae in experimental meningitis.

Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) possesses an antimicrobial effect in several animal models of infection. To evaluate a possible effect of G-CSF on the course of pneumococcal meningitis, rabbits infected intracisternally (i.c.) with Streptococcus pneumoniae type 3 (n = 7) received 50 microgram/kg of rhG-CSF intravenously (i.v.) 1 h prior to infection. Seven infected animals served as controls. Uninfected rabbits received 10 microgram of G-CSF (n = 3), 2 microgram G-CSF (n = 3) or saline (n = 3) i.c. G-CSF injected i.c. did not produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leucocytosis. Compared with the control group, i.v. G-CSF given prior to i.c. infection increased the percentage of granulocytes in blood 6 h and 12 h after infection. Twelve hours after infection, CSF tumour necrosis factor (TNF) activity and CSF interleukin (IL)-1beta concentrations were significantly higher in G-CSF-treated animals. G-CSF did not decrease bacterial growth in the subarachnoid space and the CSF leucocyte densities were not influenced. At 24 h after infection, G-CSF did not reduce the CSF concentrations of neurone-specific enolase and the density of apoptotic neurones in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. In conclusion, i.v. G-CSF increased the concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the CSF but did not decrease the growth of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the subarachnoid space.

Developmental plasticity of CNS microglia.

Microglia arise from CD45(+) bone marrow precursors that colonize the fetal brain and play a key role in central nervous system inflammatory conditions. We report that parenchymal microglia are uncommitted myeloid progenitors of immature dendritic cells and macrophages by several criteria, including surface expression of "empty" class II MHC protein and their cysteine protease (cathepsin) profile. Microglia express receptors for stem cell factor and can be skewed toward more dendritic cell or macrophage-like profiles in response to the lineage growth factors granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor or macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Thus, in contrast to other organs, where terminally differentiated populations of resident dendritic cells and/or macrophages outnumber colonizing precursors, the majority of microglia within the brain remain in an undifferentiated state.