Intestinal parasites of the Arctic fox in relation to the abundance and distribution of intermediate hosts.

The intestinal parasite community of Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) on the Svalbard archipelago in the High Arctic was investigated in relation to the abundance and distribution of intermediate hosts. Five species of cestodes (Echinococcus multilocularis, Taenia crassiceps, Taenia polyacantha, Taenia krabbei and Diphyllobothrium sp.), ascaridoid nematodes and one unidentified acanthocephalan species were found. The cestodes E. multilocularis, T. crassiceps and T. polyacantha all showed a decreasing prevalence in the fox population with increasing distance from their spatially restricted intermediate host population of sibling voles (Microtus levis). In addition, the prevalence of E. multilocularis in a sample from the vole population was directly related to the local vole abundance. The cestode T. krabbei uses reindeer as intermediate host, and its prevalence in female foxes was positively related to the density of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhyncus). Finally, the prevalence of the ascaridoid nematodes also decreased with increasing distance from the vole population, a finding that is consistent with the idea that voles are involved in transmission, most likely as paratenic hosts. The prevalence of the remaining species (Diphyllobothrium sp. and an unidentified acanthocephalan) was very low. We conclude that the distribution and abundance of intermediate host structure the gastrointestinal parasite community of the Arctic fox on the Svalbard archipelago.

Phylogenetic comparison of rabies viruses from disease outbreaks on the Svalbard Islands.

Periodic wildlife rabies epizootics occur in Arctic regions. The original sources of these outbreaks are rarely identified. In 1980, a wildlife epizootic of rabies occurred on the previously rabies-free Svalbard Islands, Norway. After this outbreak of rabies in the arctic fox population (Alopex lagopus), only single cases have been reported from the Islands over the following two decades. Phylogenetic characterization of four viruses isolated from infected arctic foxes from Svalbard from three different time periods suggest that the source of these epizootics could have been migration of this species from the Russian mainland. Arctic fox migration has likely contributed to the establishment of another zoonotic disease, Echinococcus multilocularis, on Svalbard in recent years.

Environmental contaminants in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) in Svalbard: relationships with feeding ecology and body condition.

Adipose tissues from 20 arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) of both sexes from Svalbard were analysed for polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDE), chlordane, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) concentrations. Gender (0.43

Acute toxoplasmosis in three wild arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) from Svalbard; one with co-infections of Salmonella Enteritidis PT1 and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis serotype 2b.

Acute disseminated toxoplasmosis was diagnosed in three wild arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) that were found dead in the same locality on Svalbard (Norway). The animals included one adult female and two 4-months-old pups. The adult fox was severely jaundiced. Necropsy revealed multifocal, acute, necrotizing hepatitis, acute interstitial pneumonia, and scattered foci of brain gliosis, often associated with Toxoplasma tachyzoites. One pup also had Toxoplasma-associated meningitis. In addition, the latter animal was infected with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis serotype 2b and Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 1 (PT1), which may have contributed to the severity of the Toxoplasma infection in this animal. The diagnosis of toxoplasmosis was confirmed by positive immunohistochemistry and detection of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in serum of all foxes. The animals were negative for Neospora caninum, canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus, and rabies virus on immunolabelling of tissue sections and smears.

2,3-DPG-Hb complex: a hypothesis for an asymmetric binding.

This study was undertaken to test the symmetry of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) binding site in hemoglobin (Hb). From Arnone's study [A. Arnone, Nature (London) 237 (1972) 146] the 2,3-DPG binding site is located at the top of the cavity, that runs through the center of the deoxy-Hb molecule. However, it is possible that this symmetry reported by Arnone, for crystals of 2,3-DPG-Hb complex, might not be conserved in solution. In this paper, we report the 31P nuclear magnetic resonances of the 2,3-DPG interaction with Hb. The 2,3-DPG chemical shifts of the P2 and P3 resonance are both pH- and hemoglobin-dependent [protein from man, polar bear (Ursus maritimus), Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) and bovine]. 2,3-DPG binds tightly to deoxyhemoglobin and weakly, nevertheless significantly, to oxyhemoglobin. In particular, our results suggest similar spatial position of the binding site of 2,3-DPG in both forms of Hb in solutions. However, the most unexpected result was the apparent loss of symmetry in the binding site, which might correlate with the ability of the hemoglobin to modulate its functional behavior. The different interactions of the phosphate groups indicate small differences in the quaternary structure of the different deoxy forms of hemoglobin. Given the above structural perturbation an asymmetric binding in the complex could justify, at least in part, different physiological properties of Hb. Regardless, functionally relevant effects of 2,3-DPG seem to be measured and best elucidated through solution studies.

Historical and ecological determinants of genetic structure in arctic canids.

Wolves (Canis lupus) and arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) are the only canid species found throughout the mainland tundra and arctic islands of North America. Contrasting evolutionary histories, and the contemporary ecology of each species, have combined to produce their divergent population genetic characteristics. Arctic foxes are more variable than wolves, and both island and mainland fox populations possess similarly high microsatellite variation. These differences result from larger effective population sizes in arctic foxes, and the fact that, unlike wolves, foxes were not isolated in discrete refugia during the Pleistocene. Despite the large physical distances and distinct ecotypes represented, a single, panmictic population of arctic foxes was found which spans the Svalbard Archipelago and the North American range of the species. This pattern likely reflects both the absence of historical population bottlenecks and current, high levels of gene flow following frequent long-distance foraging movements. In contrast, genetic structure in wolves correlates strongly to transitions in habitat type, and is probably determined by natal habitat-biased dispersal. Nonrandom dispersal may be cued by relative levels of vegetation cover between tundra and forest habitats, but especially by wolf prey specialization on ungulate species of familiar type and behaviour (sedentary or migratory). Results presented here suggest that, through its influence on sea ice, vegetation, prey dynamics and distribution, continued arctic climate change may have effects as dramatic as those of the Pleistocene on the genetic structure of arctic canid species.

Population structure in a critically endangered arctic fox population: does genetics matter?

The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) in Scandinavia is classified as critically endangered after having gone through a severe decline in population size in the beginning of the 20th century, from which it has failed to recover despite more than 65 years of protection. Arctic foxes have a high dispersal rate and often disperse over long distances, suggesting that there was probably little population differentiation within Scandinavia prior to the bottleneck. It is, however, possible that the recent decline in population size has led to a decrease in dispersal and an increase in population fragmentation. To examine this, we used 10 microsatellite loci to analyse genetic variation in 150 arctic foxes from Scandinavia and Russia. The results showed that the arctic fox in Scandinavia presently is subdivided into four populations, and that the Kola Peninsula and northwest Russia together form a large fifth population. Current dispersal between the populations seemed to be very low, but genetic variation within them was relatively high. This and the relative F(ST) values among the populations are consistent with a model of recent fragmentation within Scandinavia. Since the amount of genetic variation is high within the populations, but the populations are small and isolated, demographic stochasticity seems to pose a higher threat to the populations' persistence than inbreeding depression and low genetic variation.

Body composition, resting and running metabolic rates, and net cost of running in rats during starvation.

Resting metabolic rate decreases during starvation. However, effects of starvation on the cost of running are not clear. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of 5 days starvation on body composition, resting metabolic rates, running metabolic rates, and net cost of running in male rats. Five days starvation resulted in reductions of 70% fat, 8% protein and 12% carbohydrates. Mass(-0.75) specific resting metabolic rate was significantly reduced from 3.69 +/- 0.27 to 2.73 +/- 0.17 W kg(-0.75) after 5 days starvation. The reduction in metabolic rate after 5 days starvation was maintained during running, in that running metabolic rate was reduced from 10.65 +/- 0.41 to 8.97 +/- 0.47 W kg(-0.75). The net costs of running were calculated and expressed as the costs of moving 1 kg a distance of 1 m. After 5 days of starvation it was reduced from 31.16 +/- 2.03-29.79 +/- 1.69 J m(-1) kg(-1). The reduction however was not significant. The present results therefore suggest that 5 days starvation resulted in a metabolic depression of the resting metabolic rate that was maintained during running. However, the net cost of running remained unchanged, suggesting that the muscle tissues are not significantly involved in the metabolic changes during starvation.

Seasonal trends in body mass, food intake and resting metabolic rate, and induction of metabolic depression in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) at Svalbard.

Post-absorptive resting metabolic rates (RMRs), body mass and ad libitum food intake were recorded on an annual cycle in captive arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) at Svalbard. During the light season in May and in the dark period in November, RMR during starvation and subsequent re-feeding were also measured. In contrast to earlier findings, the present study indicated a seasonal trend in post-absorptive RMR (in W.kg-1 and W.kg-0.75). The values in the light summer were 15% and 11% higher than the values in the dark winter, suggesting a physiological adaptation aiding energy conservation during winter in arctic foxes. Body mass and ad libitum food intake varied inversely through the year. A significant reduction in RMR (in W and W.kg-0.75) with starvation (metabolic depression) was recorded both in May and November, indicating an adaptation to starvation in arctic foxes. The lack of metabolic depression during a period of starvation that was concomitant with extremely cold ambient temperatures in November 1994 indicates that metabolic responses to starvation may be masked by thermoregulatory needs. At very low ambient temperatures, arctic foxes may require increased heat production which cannot be achieved via below-average rates of metabolism.

Hormones and metabolites of arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) in response to season, starvation and re-feeding.

Svalbard's arctic foxes experience large seasonal variations in light, temperature and food supply throughout the year, which may result in periods of starvation. The aim of this work is to investigate if there are seasonal variations in post-absorptive plasma thyroid hormones (free thyroxin (fT(4)), free triiodothyronine (fT(3)) and reverse triiodothyronine (rT(3))) and metabolites (free fatty-acids (FFA) and beta-hydroxybutyrate (beta-OHB)) with season and their response to starvation and re-feeding. The concentrations of post-absorptive free triiodothyronine were significantly higher in November than May, while those of thyroxin, reverse triiodothyronine, free fatty-acids and beta-hydroxybutyrate remained unchanged. Possible explanations for the seasonal variations in free triiodothyronine are discussed. There were no significant changes from post-absorptive concentrations of thyroxin and reverse triiodothyronine in starved and re-fed foxes. However, free triiodothyronine concentrations decreased during starvation and increased again with re-feeding both in May and November. Starvation induced high levels of free fatty acids in both May and November, indicating increased lipolysis. There was a significant increase in beta-hydroxybutyrate in November only, indicating that arctic foxes are capable of protein conservation during starvation.

Effects of season, food deprivation and re-feeding on leptin, ghrelin and growth hormone in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) on Svalbard, Norway.

The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is a medium-sized predator of the high Arctic experiencing extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability, photoperiod and temperature. In this study, the plasma leptin, ghrelin and growth hormone (GH) concentrations of male arctic foxes were determined during a food deprivation period of 13 days and the subsequent recovery in November and May. Leptin, ghrelin and GH were present in arctic fox plasma in amounts comparable to other carnivores. The plasma leptin concentrations did not react to food deprivation unlike in humans and rodents. However, the leptin levels increased during re-feeding as an indicator of increasing energy reserves. The relatively high ghrelin-leptin ratio, decrease in the plasma ghrelin concentration, an increase in the circulating GH concentrations and the observed negative correlation between plasma ghrelin and free fatty acid levels during fasting suggest that these hormones take part in the weight-regulation and energy metabolism of this species by increasing fat utilisation during food deprivation. The results strengthen the hypothesis that the actions of these weight-regulatory hormones are species-specific and depend on seasonality and the life history of the animals.

Echinococcus multilocularis on Svalbard: introduction of an intermediate host has enabled the local life-cycle.

The taeniid tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis is here reported for the first time at the Svalbard Archipelago in the Norwegian Arctic. This new finding is interesting because the establishment of E. multilocularis is due to a recent anthropogenic introduction of its intermediate host--the sibling vole Microtus rossiaemeridionalis at Svalbard. The parasite itself has probably become naturally transferred to Svalbard due to migratory movements of its final host--the arctic fox Alopex lagopus between source areas for E. multilocularis in Siberia and Svalbard. We report macroscopically determined prevalence of E. multilocularis from a sample of 224 voles trapped in August in 1999 and 2000. The prevalence was among the highest ever recorded in intermediate hosts and was dependent on age and sex of the hosts approaching 100% in overwintered males. The high prevalence and the simplicity of the vole-arctic fox-E. multilocularis system at Svalbard makes it an eminent model system for further epidemiological studies.