The impact of BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine on adaptive and innate immune responses.

The mRNA-based BNT162b2 protects against severe disease and mortality caused by SARS-CoV-2 via induction of specific antibody and T-cell responses. Much less is known about its broad effects on immune responses against other pathogens. Here, we investigated the adaptive immune responses induced by BNT162b2 vaccination against various SARS-CoV-2 variants and its effects on the responsiveness of immune cells upon stimulation with heterologous stimuli. BNT162b2 vaccination induced effective humoral and cellular immunity against SARS-CoV-2 that started to wane after six months. We also observed long-term transcriptional changes in immune cells after vaccination. Additionally, vaccination with BNT162b2 modulated innate immune responses as measured by inflammatory cytokine production after stimulation - higher IL-1/IL-6 release and decreased IFN-α production. Altogether, these data expand our knowledge regarding the overall immunological effects of this new class of vaccines and underline the need for additional studies to elucidate their effects on both innate and adaptive immune responses.

Type I IFN-related NETosis in ataxia telangiectasia and Artemis deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Pathological inflammatory syndromes of unknown etiology are commonly observed in ataxia telangiectasia (AT) and Artemis deficiency. Similar inflammatory manifestations also exist in patients with STING-associated vasculopathy in infancy (SAVI). OBJECTIVE: We sought to test the hypothesis that the inflammation-associated manifestations observed in patients with AT and Artemis deficiency stem from increased type I IFN signature leading to neutrophil-mediated pathological damage. METHODS: Cytokine/protein signatures were determined by ELISA, cytometric bead array, or quantitative PCR. Stat1 phosphorylation levels were determined by flow cytometry. DNA species accumulating in the cytosol of patients' cells were quantified microscopically and flow cytometrically. Propensity of isolated polymorhonuclear granulocytes to form neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) was determined using fluorescence microscopy and picogreen assay. Neutrophil reactive oxygen species levels and mitochondrial stress were assayed using fluorogenic probes, microscopy, and flow cytometry. RESULTS: Type I and III IFN signatures were elevated in plasma and peripheral blood cells of patients with AT, Artemis deficiency, and SAVI. Chronic IFN production stemmed from the accumulation of DNA in the cytoplasm of AT and Artemis-deficient cells. Neutrophils isolated from patients spontaneously produced NETs and displayed indicators of oxidative and mitochondrial stress, supportive of their NETotic tendencies. A similar phenomenon was also observed in neutrophils from healthy controls exposed to patient plasma samples or exogeneous IFN-α. CONCLUSIONS: Type I IFN-mediated neutrophil activation and NET formation may contribute to inflammatory manifestations observed in patients with AT, Artemis deficiency, and SAVI. Thus, neutrophils represent a promising target to manage inflammatory syndromes in diseases with active type I IFN signature.

The fungal-derived compound AM3 modulates pro-inflammatory cytokine production and skews the differentiation of human monocytes.

The proper functioning of the immune system depends on an appropriate balance between pro-inflammation and anti-inflammation. When the balance is disrupted and the system is excessively biased towards inflammation, immune responses cannot return within the normal range, which favors the onset of diseases of autoimmune or inflammatory nature. In this scenario, it is fundamental to find new compounds that can help restore this balance and contribute to the normal functioning of the immune system in humans. Here, we show the properties of a fungal compound with a strong safety profile in humans, AM3, as an immunomodulatory molecule to decrease excessive cytokine production in human cells. Our results present that AM3 treatment of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and monocytes decreased their pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion following the challenge with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Additionally, AM3 skewed the differentiation profile of human monocytes to macrophages towards a non-inflammatory phenotype without inducing tolerance, meaning these cells kept their capacity to respond to different stimuli. These effects were similar in young and elderly individuals. Thus, the fungal compound, AM3 may help reduce excessive immune activation in inflammatory conditions and keep the immune responses within a normal homeostatic range, regardless of the age of the individual.

Differences in Immune Responses in Individuals of Indian and European Origin: Relevance for the COVID-19 Pandemic.

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, large differences in susceptibility and mortality due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection have been reported between populations in Europe and South Asia. While both host and environmental factors (including Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccination) have been proposed to explain this, the potential biological substrate of these differences is unknown. We purified peripheral blood mononuclear cells from individuals living in India and the Netherlands at baseline and 10 to 12 weeks after BCG vaccination. We compared chromatin accessibility between the two populations at baseline, as well as gene transcription profiles and cytokine production capacities upon stimulation. The chromatin accessibility of genes important for adaptive immunity was higher in the Indians than in the Europeans, while the latter had more accessible chromatin regions in genes of the innate immune system. At the transcriptional level, we observed that the Indian volunteers displayed a more tolerant immune response to stimulation, in contrast to a more exaggerated response in the Europeans. BCG vaccination strengthened the tolerance program in the Indians but not in the Europeans. These differences may partly explain the different impact of COVID-19 on the two populations. IMPORTANCE In this study, we assessed the differences in immune responses in individuals from India and Europe. This aspect is of great relevance, because of the described differences in morbidity and mortality between India and Europe during the pandemic. We found a significant difference in chromatin accessibility in immune cells from the two populations, followed by a more balanced and effective response in individuals from India. These exciting findings represent a very important piece of the puzzle for understanding the COVID-19 pandemic at a global level.

Timing and sequence of vaccination against COVID-19 and influenza (TACTIC): a single-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial.

Background: Novel mRNA-based vaccines have been used to protect against SARS-CoV-2, especially in vulnerable populations who also receive an annual influenza vaccination. The TACTIC study investigated potential immune interference between the mRNA COVID-19 booster vaccine and the quadrivalent influenza vaccine, and determined if concurrent administration would have effects on safety or immunogenicity. Methods: TACTIC was a single-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial conducted at the Radboud University Medical Centre, the Netherlands. Individuals ≥60 years, fully vaccinated against COVID-19 were eligible for participation and randomized into one of four study groups: 1) 0.5 ml influenza vaccination Vaxigrip Tetra followed by 0.3 ml BNT162b2 COVID-19 booster vaccination 21 days later, (2) COVID-19 booster vaccination followed by influenza vaccination, (3) influenza vaccination concurrent with the COVID-19 booster vaccination, and (4) COVID-19 booster vaccination only (reference group). Primary outcome was the geometric mean concentration (GMC) of IgG against the spike (S)-protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, 21 days after booster vaccination. We performed a non-inferiority analysis of concurrent administration compared to booster vaccines alone with a predefined non-inferiority margin of -0.3 on the log10-scale. Findings: 154 individuals participated from October, 4, 2021, until November, 5, 2021. Anti-S IgG GMCs for the co-administration and reference group were 1684 BAU/ml and 2435 BAU/ml, respectively. Concurrent vaccination did not meet the criteria for non-inferiority (estimate -0.1791, 95% CI -0.3680 to -0.009831) and antibodies showed significantly lower neutralization capacity compared to the reference group. Reported side-effects were mild and did not differ between study groups. Interpretation: Concurrent administration of both vaccines is safe, but the quantitative and functional antibody responses were marginally lower compared to booster vaccination alone. Lower protection against COVID-19 with concurrent administration of COVID-19 and influenza vaccination cannot be excluded, although additional larger studies would be required to confirm this. Trial registration number: EudraCT: 2021-002186-17. Funding: The study was supported by the ZonMw COVID-19 Programme.