The influence of self-focused attention on emotional picture processing: An ERP study.

Research has documented neurophysiological indicators of anticipation (Stimulus Preceding Negativity [SPN]) and perception (Late Positive Potential [LPP]) of threat, yet little is known as to how self-focused attention manipulations influence emotion processing within the context of cued picture viewing. With self-referent attention moderating attention to external stimuli, it is necessary to document how self-focused attention impacts attention and the ability to emotionally process external threat. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the impact of self-focused attention on the anticipation and perceptual processing of unpleasant pictures within a cued-picture viewing paradigm among 33 participants. Overall, the results suggest that the self-focused attention manipulations disrupted anticipation but not processing of pictures, as indexed by the SPN and LPP respectively. Self-focused attention appears to disrupt the preparatory attention for upcoming unpleasant stimuli, potentially through loading cognitive resources or activation of associative defensive responding. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the impact of self-focused attention within the context of emotional picture processing and suggest further areas of investigation.

Independent Psychometric Evaluation and Predictive Utility of The Social Anxiety Questionnaire.

The Social Anxiety Questionnaire (SAQ) is a 10-item measure of social anxiety developed to comprehensively and concisely target the mechanisms described in Clark and Wells' model of social anxiety and address the breadth of social anxiety symptoms which may not all be encompassed in existing questionnaires. The aim of the current studies is to independently investigate the factor structure of the SAQ (i.e., Study 1 and 2) and determine its predictive validity and utility (i.e., Study 3 and 4). Data were collected across 4 studies to evaluate the factor structure and utility. Overall, the results suggest that a total summed score of the SAQ appeared to capture unique aspects of social anxiety that may not be captured using a single measure and appears to provide utility in experimental manipulations of theoretical maintenance factors. The current study was limited by a convenience sample and future research should continue to document the psychometric properties and clinical utility of this novel measure of social anxiety. The SAQ may show promise in both correlational and experimental research but future research should consider further evaluation of its utility.

Neural indices of orienting, discrimination, and conflict monitoring after contextual fear and safety learning.

Investigations of fear conditioning have recently begun to evaluate contextual factors that affect attention-related processes. However, much of the extant literature does not evaluate how contextual fear learning influences neural indicators of attentional processes during goal-directed activity. The current study evaluated how early attention for task-relevant stimuli and conflict monitoring were affected when presented within task-irrelevant safety and threat contexts after fear learning. Participants (N = 72) completed a Flanker task with modified context before and after context-dependent fear learning. Flanker stimuli were presented in the same threat and safety contexts utilized in the fear learning task while EEG was collected. Results indicated increased early attention (N1) to flankers appearing in threat contexts and later increased neural indicators (P2) of attention to flankers appearing in safety contexts. Results of this study indicate that contextual fear learning modulates early attentional processes for task-relevant stimuli that appear in the context of safety and threat. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Assessing the psychometric properties of the Attentional Style Questionnaire.

Attentional control has grown in importance within theoretical and predictive models of psychopathology over past decades. The Attentional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) is a novel measure of internal and external attentional control. However, no study has independently validated this questionnaire. Two studies assessed the factor structure for the ASQ within an English-speaking population (Study 1), evaluated the construct and content validity, and assessed incremental predictability (Study 2). Results of Study 1 observed two factors that could be characterised as distractibility/cognitive avoidance and focusing, whereas the original study had observed factors defined as internal and external. Results of Study 2 confirmed the factor structure of Study 1, in addition to providing evidence for the ASQ's predictability for anxiety, depression and worry behaviours above established measures of attentional control. Overall, these results indicated that the ASQ measures factors of attentional control which provides incremental utility for predicting psychopathology. Implications on psychopathology and discrepancies to previous findings are discussed.

The effects of self-focus on attentional biases in social anxiety:An ERP study.

Cognitive theories of social anxiety disorder suggest that biased attention plays a key role in maintaining symptoms. These biases include self-focus and attention to socially threatening stimuli in the environment. The goal of this study was to utilize ERPs that are elicited by a change detection task to examine biases in selective attention (i.e., N2pc) and working memory maintenance (i.e., contralateral delay activity; CDA). Additionally, the effect of self-focus was examined using false heart rate feedback. In support of the manipulation, self-focus cues resulted in greater self-reported self-consciousness and task interference, enhanced anterior P2 amplitude and reduced SPN amplitude. Moreover, P2 amplitude for self-focus cues was correlated with reduced task performance for socially anxious subjects only. The difference in P2 amplitude between self-focus and standard cues was correlated with social anxiety independent of depression. As hypothesized, socially anxious participants (n = 20) showed early selection and maintenance of disgust faces relative to neutral faces as indicated by the N2pc and CDA components. Nonanxious controls (n = 22) did not show these biases. During self-focus cues, controls showed marginal evidence of biased selection for disgust faces, whereas socially anxious subjects showed no bias in this condition. Controls showed an ipsilateral delay activity after being cued to attend to one hemifield. Overall, this study supports early and persistent attentional bias for social threat in socially anxious individuals. Furthermore, self-focus may disrupt these biases. These findings and supplementary data are discussed in light of cognitive models of social anxiety disorder, recent empirical findings, and treatment.

Common oxytocin receptor gene variant interacts with rejection sensitivity to influence cortisol reactivity during negative evaluation.

The study tested the hypothesis that variation in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR rs53576) and self-report of rejection sensitivity are associated with adrenocortical reactivity to social stress. Participants (N=94; 36.17% male; Mage=20.18yrs; 62.8% Caucasian) completed a writing task on a salient problem in society, provided self-report via questionnaire of rejection sensitivity, and were then informed that a committee of peers would evaluate their written comments. Participants received either scripted praise or criticism as a way to induce social evaluative threat. Saliva was collected before and after the stress task and assayed for cortisol. Results revealed that cortisol levels increased in participants with moderate levels of social rejection sensitivity-inferred by rs53576 genotype and reported rejection sensitivity-while cortisol levels decreased in participants with high and low levels of social rejection sensitivity. Our findings suggest a curvilinear relationship between social rejection sensitivity and cortisol reactivity in the context of social rejection, warranting further consideration in future studies.

Effects of duration of electronic cigarette use.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined the effect of duration electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use on e-cigarette dependence, frequency of use, and strength of nicotine solution as well as number of cigarettes smoked per day. METHODS: Individuals were recruited at e-cigarette retail locations in a large Midwestern metropolitan city of the United States in July 2013. A total of 159 participants completed a brief 29-item self-report measure that assessed behaviors and perceptions of use. The mean age of the participants was 35.8 years; 84.4% were White, and 53.7% were male. RESULTS: Increased duration of e-cigarette use was associated with fewer cigarettes smoked per day and differing patterns of dependence to e-cigarettes contingent upon smoking history. Additionally, increased duration of e-cigarette use was associated with increased frequency of use; however, this finding became nonsignificant when current tobacco cigarette use was accounted for, suggesting that individuals may increase e-cigarette use frequency as they decrease cigarette use. Overall, e-cigarette users tended to decrease the strength of nicotine in their e-cigarette products regardless of duration of use. CONCLUSIONS: Although preliminary in nature, this study identifies several factors that are important to consider when examining the effects of prolonged e-cigarette use. The implications of the current results should be informative to future studies that examine these variables in longitudinal designs.

Factor structure and validation of the Attentional Control Scale.

The Attentional Control Scale (ACS; Derryberry & Reed, 2002) has been used to assess executive control over attention in numerous studies, but no published data have examined the factor structure of the English version. The current studies addressed this need and tested the predictive and convergent validity of the ACS subscales. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis yielded a two-factor model with Focusing and Shifting subscales. In Study 2, confirmatory factor analysis supported this model and suggested superior fit compared to the factor structure of the Icelandic version (Ólafsson et al., 2011). Study 3 examined correlations between the ACS subscales and measures of working memory, anxiety, and cognitive control. Study 4 examined correlations between the subscales and reaction times on a mixed-antisaccade task, revealing positive correlations for antisaccade performance and prosaccade latency with Focusing scores and between switch trial performance and Shifting scores. Additionally, the findings partially supported unique relationships between Focusing and trait anxiety and between Shifting and depression that have been noted in recent research. Although the results generally support the validity of the ACS, additional research using performance-based tasks is needed.

The influence of stress on the affective modulation of the startle response to nicotine cues.

Recent research suggesting that nicotine cues are appetitive in nature promotes the affective modulation of the startle reflex (AMSR) paradigm as a potentially valuable psychophysiological tool for elucidating mechanisms involved in nicotine addiction. Despite numerous studies indicating stress as a key factor in nicotine dependence, specific behavioral mechanisms linking stress and smoking have yet to be explicated. The current study aimed to determine the effects of stress, a negative affective state intimately linked with nicotine use, on the psychophysiological responding of nicotine dependent individuals during smoking cues. Twenty-nine nicotine dependent individuals were randomly assigned to the trier social stress test or control condition directly prior to administration of the AMSR paradigm, which examined their physiological responses to appetitive, neutral, aversive, and nicotine cue images. Both groups evinced significantly decreased startle magnitudes in response to nicotine cues as compared to aversive images. However, exposure to stress did not significantly modulate the startle reflex while viewing nicotine cues. Stress induction does not appear to modulate the AMSR paradigm when evaluating responses to nicotine images. These findings suggest that AMSR is robust to effects of acute stress induction in nicotine dependent individuals which may increase its viability as a clinical tool for assessing success in smoking cessation interventions.

Factor analysis of the pediatric symptom checklist in a population of children with voiding dysfunction and/or nocturnal enuresis.

The research objective was to identify the factor structure of the pediatric symptom checklist (PSC) in children with voiding dysfunction and/or nocturnal enuresis who were seen in a pediatric urology clinic. Retrospective chart reviews were conducted for 498 consecutive patients, ages 6-16, who were seen over a 13-month period. The PSC, a 35-item measure used to screen for psychosocial difficulties, was completed by the patient's caregiver. Confirmatory factor analyses using three previous models were conducted. A four factor model comprised of internalizing, externalizing, attention problems, and chronic illness factors represented the best fit to the data. Within this population, the PSC appears to capture internalizing and externalizing problems, difficulties with attention, and possible side effects of a medical condition. This information could aid clinicians in assessing adjustment difficulties within this population and concurrently allow researchers to examine whether these specific factors are related to other relevant outcomes.

Working memory load moderates late attentional bias in social anxiety.

The vigilance-avoidance hypothesis suggests that socially anxious individuals attempt to detect signs that they are being evaluated (vigilance) and subsequently direct attention away from such stimuli (avoidance). Although extensive evidence supports vigilance, data concerning subsequent avoidance is equivocal. Drawing from models of attention, the current study hypothesised that working memory load moderates late attentional bias in social anxiety such that avoidance occurs if working memory load is low, and difficulty disengaging attention occurs if working memory load is high. Forty-one undergraduates (19 socially anxious; 22 non-anxious controls) completed a dot-probe task with emotional (happy and disgust) and neutral facial expressions and a concurrent n-back task. Results supported the hypothesis such that socially anxious subjects demonstrated avoidance of disgust faces when working memory load was absent, but had difficulty disengaging attention during high working memory load. Theoretical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Documenting the late positive potential towards self-imagery within social anxiety.

Models of social anxiety propose that negative self-imagery is a maintenance factor of psychopathology, yet the mechanisms of this relationship are unclear. One proposed mechanism is attention towards self-images. However, self-image creation does not occur in isolation and is likely influenced by other mechanisms, such as anticipatory processing (AP). The current study aimed to investigate how trait social anxiety and AP influence motivated attention during self-imagery (i.e., late-positive potential; LPP). Participants (N = 40) with a mean age of 18.95 (SD = 1.22) completed AP manipulations and a self-imagery task. Results revealed that participants with high levels of social anxiety who engaged in AP demonstrated blunted LPP activity in the late time window (6000-10,000 ms) relative to those who engaged in Distraction. These results suggest that motivated attention towards self-imagery may be impacted by anticipatory processing, but less influenced by the valence of self-imagery. Given previous research has been limited in methodology, this study expands upon current research by documenting the neural mechanisms of self-imagery manipulations within social anxiety.

Cognitive mechanisms influence the relationship between social anxiety and depression among college students.

OBJECTIVE: Social anxiety and depression are commonly comorbid and cause significant impairment in college students. Past research suggests that both poor attentional control and increased rumination are related to these disorders and independently mediate their relationship. Theory suggests that social anxiety loads working memory, thus decreasing attentional control, which influences rumination and depression. The current study aimed to investigate the potential combined influence of attention control and rumination on social anxiety and depression. Participants: Participants (80) were recruited from a large Midwestern university in September 2017. Methods: Participants completed questionnaires regarding social anxiety, attentional control, rumination, and depression and data were analyzed using bias-corrected bootstrapping analyses. Results: Results demonstrate a significant indirect relationship between social anxiety and depression through attentional control and rumination. Conclusions: Results indicated that college students with social anxiety may be at risk for depression due to decreased attentional control and increased rumination. Clinical implications are discussed.

Child maltreatment and cognitive vulnerabilities: Examining the link to posttraumatic stress symptoms.

Research attempting to identify pathways from childhood maltreatment to adulthood posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) implicates cognitive vulnerabilities that may increase risk for mental health concerns. The present study examined two cognitive vulnerabilities and their relation to PTSS amongst individuals with and without childhood maltreatment histories: attentional control and repetitive negative thinking (RNT). This research surveyed college students (N = 376) on constructs of interest. Results revealed that attentional control and RNT demonstrated significant indirect effects on PTSS (95% CI =.0003, .0336 and 95% CI =.0643, .1857, respectively). Findings suggest that childhood maltreatment severity was related to decreased attentional control and increased RNT, which were then both related to increased PTSS. Interventions for increasing attentional control and decreasing RNT should be implemented and evaluated for young adults with early adversity currently experiencing PTSS.

Early childhood experiences and cognitive risk factors for anxiety symptoms among college students.

OBJECTIVE: Data indicate that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are a risk factor for cognitive and attentional vulnerabilities. A vulnerability linked to these impairments is repetitive negative thinking (RNT), and data suggest that RNT and anxiety symptoms may be moderated by attentional control. The current study investigated the effect of these risk factors on symptoms of anxiety. Participants: College students (N = 376) were recruited from a university. Methods: Participants were administered questionnaires online to assess retrospective ACEs, current RNT, attentional control, and anxiety symptoms. Results: There was an indirect effect of ACEs on anxiety symptoms through RNT. High attentional control moderated the indirect effects, such that high compared to low attentional control was associated with an increased effect of RNT on anxiety symptoms. Conclusions: Increased ACEs may be a risk factor for RNT among college students. Combined with high attentional control, these may be risk factors for anxiety symptoms.

An examination of the factor structure of parenting capacity measures in chronic illness populations.

OBJECTIVE: To examine and confirm the factor structure of three widely used measures of parenting capacity: the Child Vulnerability Scale, Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, and Parental Protection Scale. METHOD: Caregivers (N = 457) of children with cancer, asthma, diabetes, sickle cell disease, or cystic fibrosis completed each scale. Separate exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on each measure. RESULTS: The Child Vulnerability Scale and Parenting Stress Index-Short Form maintained their proposed factor structure; however, several items on the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form were not retained. Finally, multiple items were not retained on the Parental Protection Scale resulting in a proposed unidimensional structure. CONCLUSION: Continued use of the Child Vulnerability Scale and a modified Parenting Stress Index-Short Form appears appropriate in a pediatric chronic illness population. However, further factor analytic studies are needed to examine the Parental Protection Scale. Future clinical and research implications are discussed.

Precursors of the emotional cascade model of borderline personality disorder: The role of neuroticism, childhood emotional vulnerability, and parental invalidation.

The emotional cascade model proposes that the emotional instability and engagement in maladaptive behaviors within borderline personality disorder (BPD) may be linked to rumination. Previous research has established that BPD is highly related to neuroticism, childhood emotional vulnerability, and parental invalidation. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to assess whether the constructs of the emotional cascade model relate to other constructs within the BPD nomological network. More specifically, neuroticism, childhood emotional vulnerability, and parental invalidation should relate to the ruminative process and engagement in maladaptive behaviors as described by the emotional cascade model. The current study investigated the relation between these factors using a cross-lagged panel design with data collected online at 3 time points in a student sample and an Amazon Mechanical Turk sample. Neuroticism predicted rumination 1 month later across both samples and for 3 measures of rumination. Childhood emotional vulnerability and parental invalidation predicted rumination 2 months later for 2 measures of rumination in the student sample only. Future studies should continue to investigate the potential role of personality traits and BPD vulnerability factors within the emotional cascade model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The role of excessive reassurance seeking: An eye tracking study of the indirect effect of social anxiety symptoms on attention bias.

High social anxiety is associated with increased attentional bias, and difficulties disengaging from relevant threat information, though social anxiety may also be associated with avoidance of threat. Few mechanisms of this relationship have been empirically evaluated, whereas theories and treatment manuals implicate avoidance and/or safety behaviors as significant agents of negative reinforcement for anxiety symptoms and search for threat. The current study sought to investigate one safety behavior, excessive reassurance seeking, as a mediator of the relationship between social anxiety and attention bias to disgust facial stimuli. Support was found for our hypotheses, such that social anxiety symptoms had an indirect effect on attention bias to disgust faces through increased reassurance seeking. These results suggest that reassurance seeking may result in disengagement of attention to threat stimuli. Specifically, social anxiety may result in a decreased threshold for negative social cues and therefore seek out reassurance feedback and avoid threatening stimuli. Future studies should test these directly and utilize a prospective design. The current study suggests that reassurance seeking may be involved in the attention bias process, providing additional data for current cognitive theories of social anxiety and additional support for reinforcement patterns of anxiety symptoms.

Social anxiety as a precursor for depression: Influence of interpersonal rejection and attention to emotional stimuli.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are comorbid conditions, and SAD confers risk for MDD. Biased attention and interpersonal rejection are important for the development of SAD and MDD, but little research has examined how these processes may lead to MDD. We hypothesized that interpersonal rejection would result in SAD symptoms being associated with more "depression-like" attention biases. Participants (n = 164) completed a measure of SAD symptoms and an eye tracking task before and after a task in which they were randomized to be socially included or rejected. SAD symptoms, inclusion or rejection condition, and the interaction term were entered into separate hierarchical linear regressions predicting change in attention for five emotional faces. Rejection condition significantly moderated the effects of SAD on change in attention to sad, happy, and neutral faces. SAD predicted increased attention to sad faces and decreased attention to happy faces in the rejection condition, but not in the inclusion condition. SAD predicted increased attention to neutral faces in the inclusion condition, but not in the rejection condition. There were no significant effects for angry or disgust. Results suggest that SAD symptoms are associated with more depression-like attention biases in the context of interpersonal rejection.