Concordance between physiotherapists and physicians for care of patients with musculoskeletal disorders presenting to the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Overcrowding in emergency departments (ED) is a major concern worldwide. To answer increasing health care demands, new models of care including advanced practice physiotherapists (APP) have been implemented in EDs. The purpose of this study was to assess diagnostic, treatment and discharge plan concordance between APPs and ED physicians for patients consulting to the ED for minor musculoskeletal disorders (MSKD). METHODS: Patients presenting to two EDs in Montréal (Canada) with a minor MSKD were recruited and independently assessed by an APP and ED physician. Both providers had to formulate diagnosis, treatment and discharge plans. Cohen's kappa (κ) and Prevalence and Bias Adjusted Kappas (PABAK) with associated 95%CI were calculated. Chi Square and t-tests were used to compare treatment, discharge plan modalities and patient satisfaction between providers. RESULTS: One hundred and thirteen participants were recruited, mean age was 50.3 ± 17.4 years old and 51.3% had an atraumatic MSKD. Diagnostic inter-rater agreement between providers was very good (κ = 0.81; 95% CI: 0.72-0.90). In terms of treatment plan, APPs referred significantly more participants to physiotherapy care than ED physicians (κ = 0.27; PABAK = 0.27; 95% CI: 0.07-0.45; p = 0.003). There was a moderate inter-rater agreement (κ = 0.46; PABAK = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.46-0.77) for discharge plans. High patient satisfaction was reported with no significant differences between providers (p = 0.57). CONCLUSION: There was significant agreement between APPs and ED physicians in terms of diagnosis and discharge plans, but more discrepancies regarding treatment plans. These results tend to support the integration of APPs in ED settings, but further prospective evaluation of the efficiency of these types of models is warranted.

Two cases demonstrate an association between Tropheryma whipplei and pulmonary marginal zone lymphoma.

BACKGROUND: Marginal zone lymphomas of mucosa-associated lymphatic tissues (MZL of MALT) are a group of indolent B-cell neoplasms, which are thought to arise from chronic antigenic stimulation of B-cells either due to underlying chronic infection or autoimmune disease. Little is known about potential causative pathogens in pulmonary MZL (PMZL), although some data suggests a potential role of Achromobacter (A.) xylosoxidans. METHODS: An index case of chronic pulmonary colonisation with Tropheryma (T.) whipplei and subsequent development of PMZL was identified by T. whipplei specific PCR and metagenomic next genome sequencing (mNGS). This case prompted a retrospectively conducted analysis of T. whipplei-specific PCRs in lung tissue from PMZL patients (n = 22), other pulmonary lymphomas, and normal controls. Positive results were confirmed by mNGS. A systematic search for T. whipplei and A. xylosoxidans in our in-house mNGS dataset comprising autopsy lungs, lung biopsies and lung resection specimens (n = 181) was subsequently performed. RESULTS: A 69-year-old patient presented with weight loss and persistent pulmonary consolidation. Subsequent mNGS analysis detected T. whipplei in the resected lung specimen. An antibiotic regimen eventually eliminated the bacterium. However, the consolidation persisted, and the diagnosis of PMZL was made in a second lung resection specimen. A second case of T. whipplei-associated PMZL was subsequently detected in the retrospectively analysed PMZL cohort. Both cases showed comparatively few mutations and no mutations in genes encoding for NF-κB pathway components, suggesting that T. whipplei infection may substitute for mutations in these PMZL. None of the samples in our in-house dataset tested positive for T. whipplei. In contrast, A. xylosoxidans was frequently found in both autopsy lungs and lung biopsy / resection specimens that were not affected by PMZL (> 50%). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggests that T. whipplei colonisation of lungs may trigger PMZL as a potential driver. Systematic analyses with larger cohorts should be conducted to further support this hypothesis. The frequent detection of A. xylosoxidans in lung tissue suggests that it is a common component of the pulmonary microbiome and therefore less likely to trigger lymphomas.

Atmospheric lead fallout over the last century recorded in Gulf of Lions sediments (Mediterranean Sea).

Six marine sediment cores from the Gulf of Lions continental slope (700-1700 m water depth) were analyzed for stable lead isotopes and (210)Pb geochronology in order to reconstruct lead atmospheric fallout pattern during the last century. The detrital lead contribution is 25 microg g(-1) and the mean sediment anthropogenic inventory is 110+/-7 microg cm(-2), a little bit higher than atmospheric deposition estimate. Anthropogenic lead accumulation in sediments peaked in early 1970s (1973+/-2) in agreement with lead emissions features. For the period 1986-1997, the sediment signal also reflect the decrease of atmospheric lead described by independent atmospheric fallout investigations. The anthropogenic Pb deposition in the late 1990s was similar to the 1950s deposition, attesting thus of the output of European environmental policies.

Differential expression of insulin-like growth factor II mRNA in human primary liver cancers, benign liver tumors, and liver cirrhosis.

We investigated insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II) mRNA in three groups of human liver samples including primary liver cancers, benign liver tumors and cirrhosis; indeed these pathological conditions would allow us to distinguish between different steps in liver carcinogenesis. A 40- to 100-fold increase in IGF-II mRNA was shown in 9/40 of the liver cancer samples as compared to normal adult liver. RNA blot analysis using both IGF-II cDNA and oligonucleotide probes showed the reexpression of two fetal (6 and 5 kilobases) IGF-II transcripts in primary liver cancers and in some cirrhotic adjacent tissues; these included all the samples with enhanced IGF-II expression. By contrast the adult (5.3 kilobases) IGF-II transcript was identified in most of the benign liver tumors and liver cirrhosis; in addition, in some of these samples, the 5-kilobase fetal transcript was also detected. The increase of IGF-II mRNA in some liver cancers is consistent with an autocrine mechanism conferring a selective growth advantage to tumorous liver cells. Furthermore, these results indicate a differential expression of IGF-II transcripts in nonmalignant hepatocyte proliferation (benign liver tumors and cirrhosis) as compared to liver cancer. Finally this study suggests that, in liver cirrhosis and in some benign liver tumors, premalignant proliferative states might be identified by the presence of IGF-II fetal transcripts.

Hydrophilicity/lipophilicity: relevance for the pharmacology and clinical effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.

The recent development of specific competitive inhibitors of the hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase such as lovastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin and fluvastatin has provided an important new and effective approach to the treatment of hyperlipidaemia and atherosclerosis. These agents are designed to be hepatoselective because the primary site of cholesterol synthesis is the liver and peripheral inhibition of cholesterol synthesis would be more likely to cause adverse drug effects. In this review, Bettina Hamelin and Jacques Turgeon discuss how specific physico-chemical and pharmacological properties (first-pass effect or carrier-mediated uptake) confer hepatoselectivity to either lipophilic or hydrophilic HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.

Priming of calcium mobilization in human neutrophils by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor: evidence for an involvement of phospholipase D-derived phosphatidic acid.

Human neutrophils pre-incubated with granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) exhibit an enhanced mobilization of calcium in response to secondary stimuli such as chemotactic factors. The mechanisms underlying this priming effect of GM-CSF were examined. It was first demonstrated that the additional calcium mobilized by chemotactic factors in GM-CSF-treated cells was derived from intracellular stores and was associated neither with an increased permeability to calcium nor with production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. These results indicated that GM-CSF called upon a novel mechanism in order to enhance the mobilization of calcium in human neutrophils. The growth factor has recently been shown to prime phospholipase D leading to an enhanced activation by chemotactic factors and an augmented production of phosphatidic acid. Furthermore the ability of exogenous phosphatidic acid to mobilize calcium in cell types other than neutrophils has been previously demonstrated. Therefore, we examined the potential involvement of phospholipase D in the priming of the calcium response by GM-CSF in human neutrophils. Inhibition of the production of the fMet-Leu-Phe-stimulated production of phosphatidic acid by ethanol or wortmannin had only marginal effects on the concurrent mobilization of calcium. However, the priming of the mobilization of calcium by GM-CSF was greatly decreased in cells treated with either ethanol or wortmannin. These results provide strong support for the hypothesis that the production of phosphatidic acid, which is enhanced in GM-CSF-treated cells, is linked to an increased mobilization of intracellular calcium. These results may have relevance to the mechanism of action of GM-CSF in mature haematopoeitic cells as well to the mitogenic activity of other growth factors.

Role of CYP2D6 in the N-hydroxylation of procainamide.

Sequential oxidations at the arylamine moiety of the procainamide molecule leading to the formation of N-hydroxyprocainamide and its nitroso derivative may be responsible for lupus erythematosus observed in patients treated with the drug. The objective of the present study was to characterize major cytochrome P450 isozyme(s) involved in the N-hydroxylation of procainamide. Firstly, incubations were performed with microsomes from either lymphoblastoid cells or yeast transfected with cDNA encoding for specific human cytochrome P450 isozymes. Experiments performed with these enzyme expression systems indicated that the highest formation rate of N-hydroxyprocainamide was observed in the presence of CYP2D6 enriched microsomes. Additional experiments demonstrated that the formation rate of N-hydroxyprocainamide by CYP2D6 enriched microsomes was decreased from 45 +/- 4% to 93 +/- 1% by quinidine at concentrations ranging from 30 nM to 100 microM (all p < 0.05 vs control) and by approximately 75% by antibodies directed against CYP2D6. Secondly, incubations were performed with microsomes prepared from 15 human liver samples. Using this approach, an excellent correlation was observed between the formation rate of N-hydroxyprocainamide and dextromethorphan O-demethylase activity (CYP2D6; r = 0.9305; p < 0.0001). In contrast, no correlation could be established between N-hydroxyprocainamide formation rate and caffeine N3-demethylase (CYP1A2), coumarin 7-hydroxylase (CYP2A6), S-mephenytoin N-demethylase (CYP2B6), tolbutamide methlhydroxylase (CYP2C9), S-mephenytoin 4'-hydroxylase (CYP2C19), chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylase (CYP2E1), dextromethorphan N-demethylase (CYP3A4), testosterone 6 beta-hydroxylase (CYP3A4/5) or lauric acid 12-hydroxylase (CYP4A11) activities. Furthermore, formation rate of N-hydroxyprocainamide was decreased in a concentration-dependent manner by quinidine (300 nM to 100 microM) and by antibodies directed against CYP2D6 but not by furafylline 20 microM (CYP1A2), ketoconazole 1 microM (CYP3A4), sulfaphenazole 10 microM (CYP2C9) or antibodies directed against CYP1A1/1A2, CYP2C, CYP2A6, CYP2E1 or CYP3A4/3A5. In conclusion, the results obtained in the present study demonstrate that CYP2D6 is the major human cytochrome P450 isozyme involved in the formation of the reactive metabolite of procainamide, namely N-hydroxyprocainamide.

Effect of gender, sex hormones, time variables and physiological urinary pH on apparent CYP2D6 activity as assessed by metabolic ratios of marker substrates.

The effects of gender, time variables, menstrual cycle phases, plasma sex hormone concentrations and physiologic urinary pH on CYP2D6 phenotyping were studied using two widely employed CYP2D6 probe drugs, namely dextromethorphan and metoprolol. Phenotyping on a single occasion of 150 young, healthy, drug-free women and men revealed that the dextromethorphan: dextrorphan metabolic ratio (MR) was significantly lower (P < 0.0001) in 56 female extensive metabolizers (0.008+/-0.021) compared to 86 male extensive metabolizers (0.020 +/-0.040). Urinary pH was a significant predictor of dextromethorphan: dextrorphan MRs in men and women (P < 0.001). Once-a-month phenotyping with dextromethorphan of 12 healthy young men (eight extensive metabolizers and four poor metabolizers) over a 1-year period, as well as every-other-day phenotyping with dextromethorphan of healthy, pre-menopausal women (10 extensive metabolizers and 2 poor metabolizers) during a complete menstrual cycle, did not follow a particular pattern and showed similar intrasubject variability ranging from 24.1% to 74.5% (mean 50.9%) in men and from 20.5% to 96.2% (mean 52.0%) in women, independent of the CYP2D6 phenotype (P = 0.342). Using metoprolol as a probe drug, considerable intrasubject variability (38.6+/- 12.0%) but no correlation between metoprolol: alpha-hydroxymetoprolol MRs and pre-ovulatory, ovulatory and luteal phases (mean +/- SD metoprolol: a-hydroxymetoprolol MRs: 1.086+/- 1.137 pre-ovulatory; 1.159+/-1.158 ovulatory and 1.002+/-1.405 luteal phase; P> 0.9) or 17beta-oestradiol, progesterone or testosterone plasma concentrations was observed. There was a significant inverse relationship between physiologic urinary pH and sequential dextromethorphan: dextrorphan MRs as well as metoprolol: alpha-hydroxymetoprolol MRs in men and women, with metabolic ratios varying up to six-fold with metoprolol and up to 20-fold with dextromethorphan (ANCOVA P < 0.001). We conclude that apparent CYP2D6 activity is highly variable, independent of menstrual cycle phases, sex hormones, time variables or phenotype. Up to 80% of the observed variability can be explained by variations of urinary pH within the physiological range. An apparent phenotype shift as a result of variations in urinary pH may be observed in individuals who have metabolic ratios close to the population antimode.

Influence of CYP2D6 activity on the disposition and cardiovascular toxicity of the antidepressant agent venlafaxine in humans.

According to in-vitro studies with microsomes from human livers and from yeast expression systems with high CYP2D6 activity, the major oxidation pathway of venlafaxine is catalysed by CYP2D6. In this study, we investigated the role of the CYP2D6 polymorphism and the effects of low-dose quinidine, a selective inhibitor of, CYP2D6, on the disposition of venlafaxine. Fourteen healthy men, eight with the extensive metabolizer and six with the poor metabolizer phenotype were administered venlafaxine hydrochloride 18.75 mg orally every 12 h for 48 h on two occasions (1 week apart); once alone and once during the concomitant administration of quinidine sulfate 100 mg every 12 h. Blood and urine samples were collected under steady-state conditions over one dosing interval (12 h). When venlafaxine was administered alone, the oral clearance of venlafaxine was more than fourfold less in poor metabolizers compared to extensive metabolizers (P < 0.05). This was mainly due to a decreased capability of poor metabolizers to form O-desmethylated metabolites at the position 4 of the aromatic moiety. In extensive metabolizers, quinidine decreased venlafaxine oral clearance from 100 +/- 62 l/h to 17 +/- 5 l/h (mean +/- SD; P < 0.05) without any effects on renal clearance (4 +/- 1 l/h during venlafaxine alone and 4 +/- 1 l/h during venlafaxine plus quinidine). In these individuals, the sequential metabolism of venlafaxine to O-desmethylvenlafaxine and to N,O-didesmethylvenlafaxine was inhibited by quinidine coadministration so that metabolic clearances to O-desmethylated metabolites decreased from 43 +/- 32 l/h to 2 +/- 1 l/h (P < 0.05). In poor metabolizers, coadministration of quinidine did not cause significant changes in oral clearance and partial metabolic clearances of venlafaxine to its various metabolites. Decreased CYP2D6 activity could also be associated with cardiovascular toxicity as observed in four patients during treatment with the drug. Thus, genetically determined or pharmacologically altered CYP2D6 activity represents a major determinant of venlafaxine disposition in humans.

Involvement of CYP2D6 activity in the N-oxidation of procainamide in man.

Occurrence of a lupus-like syndrome in a significant number of patients treated with procainamide has limited the clinical use of this antiarrhythmic drug. In-vitro studies conducted in our laboratory have demonstrated that CYP2D6 is the major cytochrome P450 isozyme involved in the formation of N-hydroxyprocainamide, a metabolite potentially involved in the drug-induced lupus erythematosus syndrome observed with procainamide. In the current study, we evaluated the role of CYP2D6 activity in the in-vivo oxidation of procainamide in man. Nineteen healthy individuals, 13 with high (extensive metabolizers) and six with low (poor metabolizers) CYP2D6 activity, received a single 500 mg oral dose of procainamide hydrochloride on two occasions, once alone (period 1) and once during the concomitant administration of the selective inhibitor quinidine (50 mg four times daily; period 2). Blood and urine samples were collected over 36 h after drug administration of procainamide and analysed for procainamide and its major metabolites (N-acetylprocainamide, desethylprocainamide, N-acetyl-desethylprocainamide, p-aminobenzoic acid and its N-acetylated derivative, and nitroprocainamide). No differences were observed in the oral and renal clearances of procainamide between extensive metabolizers and poor metabolizers during either study period. However, partial metabolic clearance of procainamide to desethylprocainamide was significantly greater in extensive metabolizers than in poor metabolizers during both periods. Most importantly, the urinary excretion of nitroprocainamide during period 1 was measurable in 7/13 extensive metabolizers but in none of the poor metabolizers. During the concomitant administration of quinidine, nitroprocainamide could not be detected in the urine of any individuals tested. Therefore, our results suggest that CYP2D6 is involved in the in-vivo aliphatic amine deethylation and N-oxidation of procainamide at its arylamine function in man. Further studies are needed to demonstrate whether a low CYP2D6 activity, either genetically determined or pharmacologically modulated, could prevent drug-induced lupus erythematosus syndrome observed during chronic therapy with procainamide.

The disposition of fluoxetine but not sertraline is altered in poor metabolizers of debrisoquin.

BACKGROUND: Substrates and inhibitors of the cytochrome P450 isozyme CYP2D6 have overlapping structural characteristics. Two prototype serotonin uptake inhibitors, sertraline and fluoxetine, share these structural criteria and have been identified as potent inhibitors of CYP2D6 in vitro. The current study was undertaken to investigate whether genetically determined CYP2D6 activity alters the disposition of sertraline or fluoxetine or both. METHODS: Single doses of sertraline (50 mg) and fluoxetine (20 mg) were administered successively to 20 young men with high (extensive metabolizers; n = 10) and low (poor metabolizers; n = 10) CYP2D6 activity. Blood and urine samples were collected for 5 to 7 half-lives and sertraline, desmethylsertraline, fluoxetine, and norfluoxetine were determined by GC and HPLC techniques. RESULTS: Poor metabolizers had significantly greater fluoxetine peak plasma concentrations (Cmax; increases 57%), area under the concentration versus time curve (AUCzero-->infinity; increases 290%), and terminal elimination half-life (increases 216%) compared with extensive metabolizers. The total amount of fluoxetine excreted in the urine during 8 days was almost three times higher in poor metabolizers than in extensive metabolizers (719 versus 225 micrograms; p < 0.05), whereas the total amount of norfluoxetine excreted in urine of poor metabolizers was about half of that of extensive metabolizers (524 versus 1047 micrograms; p < 0.05). Norfluoxetine Cmax and AUCzero-->t were significantly smaller in poor metabolizers (decreases 55% and decreases 53%, respectively), and the partial metabolic clearance of fluoxetine into norfluoxetine was 10 times smaller in this group (4.3 +/- 1.9 versus 0.4 +/- 0.1 L/hr; p < 0.05). No significant differences between extensive and poor metabolizers were found for sertraline and desmethylsertraline pharmacokinetics. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that poor metabolizers accumulate fluoxetine but not sertraline and that CYP2D6 plays an important role in the demethylation of fluoxetine but not of sertraline.

Caffeine metabolism in cystic fibrosis: enhanced xanthine oxidase activity.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To characterize the activities of the P450 mixed-function oxidase CYP1A2 as well as the cytosolic enzymes N-acetyltransferase and xanthine oxidase using caffeine as a probe in children with cystic fibrosis compared to age-matched healthy control subjects. METHODS: After administration of caffeine (cola beverage) to 12 children with cystic fibrosis (age range, 5 to 11 years) and 12 healthy control subjects (age range, 5 to 12 years), urine was collected for 4 hours. Caffeine metabolites were determined by HPLC, and urinary caffeine metabolite ratios were computed to determine liver enzyme activities. In addition, a blood sample was used to detect cystic fibrosis mutant alleles by polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: The indexes for CYP1A2, N-acetyltransferase, and 8-hydroxylation were similar in both groups of subjects. In contrast, there was a significant difference in the frequency distribution of the xanthine oxidase activity between the two groups. Nine of 12 patients with cystic fibrosis but only one of 12 healthy volunteers had xanthine oxidase activities above 0.42 (Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Differences in xanthine oxidase may have clinical implications with regard to interindividual variation in xenobiotic biotransformation and the exposure to lung tissue-damaging oxygen radicals. Hepatic enzyme activities appear to be selectively altered in patients with cystic fibrosis.

Significant interaction between the nonprescription antihistamine diphenhydramine and the CYP2D6 substrate metoprolol in healthy men with high or low CYP2D6 activity.

The prototype "classic" over-the-counter antihistamine diphenhydramine was shown to interact with the polymorphic P450 enzyme CYP2D6. This project was undertaken to investigate (1) whether diphenhydramine inhibits the biotransformation of the clinically relevant CYP2D6 substrate metoprolol in vitro and (2) whether this in vitro interaction results in a clinically significant pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interaction in vivo. In vitro incubations were carried out with microsomes obtained from lymphoblastic cells transfected with CYP2D6 complementary deoxyribonucleic acid to determine the type and extent of inhibition. We then randomized 16 subjects with genetically determined high (extensive metabolizers) or low (poor metabolizers) CYP2D6 activity to receive metoprolol (100 mg) in the presence of steady-state concentrations of diphenhydramine or placebo. In vitro, diphenhydramine was a potent competitive inhibitor of metoprolol alpha-hydroxylation, exhibiting an inhibitory constant of 2 micromol/L and increasing the Michaelis-Menten constant of metoprolol sixfold. In vivo, diphenhydramine decreased metoprolol oral and nonrenal clearances twofold and metoprolol-->alpha-hydroxymetoprolol partial metabolic clearance 2.5-fold in extensive metabolizers (all P < .05) but not in poor metabolizers (P > .2). Although the hemodynamic response to metoprolol was unaltered by diphenhydramine in poor metabolizers (P > .05), metoprolol-related effects on heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and Doppler-derived aortic blood flow peak velocity were more pronounced and lasted significantly longer in extensive metabolizers receiving diphenhydramine compared with poor metabolizers and extensive metabolizers receiving placebo. We conclude that diphenhydramine inhibits the metabolism of metoprolol in extensive metabolizers, thereby prolonging the negative chronotropic and inotropic effects of the drug. Clinically relevant drug interactions may occur between diphenhydramine and many CYP2D6 substrates, particularly those with a narrow therapeutic index.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction between mexiletine and propafenone in human beings.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Mexiletine and propafenone are often used concomitantly and are metabolized by the same cytochrome P450 isozymes, namely CYP2D6, CYP1A2, and probably CYP3A4. Our objective was to study the potential pharmacokinetic and electrophysiological interactions between mexiletine and propafenone. METHODS: Fifteen healthy volunteers, 8 extensive metabolizers and 7 poor metabolizers of CYP2D6, received oral doses of mexiletine 100 mg two times daily from day 1 to day 8 and oral doses of propafenone 150 mg two times daily from day 5 to day 12. Interdose studies were performed at steady-state on mexiletine alone (day 4), mexiletine plus propafenone (day 8), and propafenone alone (day 12). RESULTS: In subjects in the extensive metabolizer group, coadministration of propafenone decreased oral clearances of R-(-)-mexiletine (from 41+/-11 L/h to 28+/-7 L/h) and S-(+)-mexiletine (from 43+/-15 L/h to 29+/-11 L/h) to an extent such that these values were no longer different between the extensive and the poor metabolizer groups. Propafenone coadministration also decreased partial metabolic clearances of mexiletine to hydroxymethylmexiletine, p-hydroxymexiletine, and m-hydroxymexiletine in extensive metabolizers by 71%, 67%, and 73%, respectively. In contrast, propafenone did not alter the kinetics of mexiletine enantiomers in subjects in the poor metabolizer group except for a slight decrease in the formation of hydroxymethylmexiletine. Pharmacokinetic parameters of propafenone were not changed during concomitant administration of mexiletine in subjects of either phenotype. Finally, electrocardiographic parameters (QRS duration, QTc, RR, and PR intervals) were not modified during the combined administration of the drugs. CONCLUSION: Propafenone is a potent CYP2D6 inhibitor that may cause an increase in plasma concentrations of coadministered CYP2D6 substrates.

Classic histamine H1 receptor antagonists: a critical review of their metabolic and pharmacokinetic fate from a bird's eye view.

The so-called "classic" histamine H(1) receptor antagonists are highly lipophilic compounds associated with significant biotransformation and tissue distribution. They are categorized according to their chemical structure into ethanolamines, alkylamines, ethylenediamines, piperazines, phenothiazines and piperidines, all of which have characteristic metabolic fates. The former four categories undergo primarily cytochrome P450-mediated oxidative N-desalkylations and deamination whereas the aromatic rings of the latter two undergo P450-mediated oxidative hydroxylation and/or epoxide formation. The common tertiary amino group is susceptible to oxidative metabolism by flavin containing monooxygenases forming N-oxides, and the alicyclic tertiary amines produce small amounts (up to 7%) of N-glucuronides in humans. Species, sex and racial differences in the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of antihistamines are known. Specific P450-isozymes implicated in the metabolism were identified in a few cases, such as CYP2D6 that contributes to the metabolism of promethazine, diphenhydramine and chlorpheniramine. Low circulating plasma concentrations of antihistamines are in part explained by significant first-pass effect and tissue distribution. Antihistaminic effects last up to 6 hours though some compounds exhibit a longer duration of action due to circulating active metabolites. Importantly, diphenhydramine inhibited CYP2D6 leading to a clinically significant drug-drug interaction with metoprolol. Other classic antihistamines were shown to be potent in vitro inhibitors of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. The prescription-free access to most classic antihistamines can easily lead to their co-administration with other drugs metabolized by the same enzyme system thereby leading to drug accumulation and adverse effects. In depth knowledge of the metabolic pathways of classic antihistamines and the enzymes involved is crucial to prevent the high incidence of drug interactions in humans, which are predictable based on pre-clinical data but unexpected when such data is unavailable.

Treating the symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a double-blind comparison of omeprazole and cisapride.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have specifically addressed the management of the symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease, and there are no comparative data in this respect for acid pump inhibitors and prokinetic agents. METHODS: Following endoscopy 424 patients presenting with heartburn as the predominant symptom of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease were randomized to treatment with omeprazole 20 or 10 mg once daily, or cisapride 10 mg four times daily, in a double-blind, double-dummy, parallel group, multicentre study. Symptoms and quality of life were assessed at 4 weeks. Patients still experiencing heartburn continued therapy for a further 4 weeks and the assessments were repeated. RESULTS: At 4 weeks, heartburn was resolved in 65% (95% CI: 57-73%), 56% (48-64%) and 41% (32%-49%) of patients treated, respectively, with omeprazole 20 mg and 10 mg once daily, and cisapride. Both omeprazole doses were significantly more effective than cisapride (P < 0.01). The same order of efficacy was observed regardless of the presence of erosive oesophagitis. Regurgitation and epigastric pain also improved to a greater degree with omeprazole than with cisapride. Quality of life was improved in all treatment groups, and the improvement in the reflux dimension of the Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS) score was significantly different between groups (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Omeprazole 20 or 10 mg once daily is significantly more effective than cisapride in the resolution of heartburn, regardless of the presence of erosive oesophagitis, and this is accompanied by an improvement in patient quality of life.

The effect of mosapride, a novel prokinetic, on acid reflux variables in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease.

BACKGROUND: Mosapride is a novel prokinetic agent facilitating acetylcholine release from the enteric cholinergic neurones through a selective 5-HT4 receptor agonistic action. It is also active through its main metabolite M1, which is a 5-HT3 antagonist. The importance of motor dysfunction in the pathogenesis of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD) makes it interesting to examine the effect of mosapride on oesophageal acid exposure. METHODS: The effect of mosapride on oesophageal 24-h acid reflux variables was studied in 21 patients with GERD symptoms and a pre-entry total acid exposure time (pH < 4) of more than 5%. Ambulatory pH monitoring was performed after treatment with 40 mg mosapride citrate or placebo q.d.s. for 2 days in random order, using a double-blind crossover technique, with a washout period of at least 5 days. RESULTS: Mosapride was significantly more effective than placebo in decreasing the total number of reflux episodes, the total number of reflux episodes lasting more than 5 min and the total time, as well as the amount of day time, of intra-oesophageal pH below 4. Consequently, mosapride also significantly improved total acid clearance time. CONCLUSION: Mosapride 40 mg q.d.s. is effective in decreasing acid reflux in the oesophagus in patients with GERD and therefore has the potential to be effective in the treatment of this disease.

Extra-intestinal manifestations associated with irritable bowel syndrome: a twin study.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the role of genetic and environmental factors in irritable bowel syndrome. Various extra-intestinal manifestations are more prevalent in cases than in controls. Genetic effects may be important in the liability to develop functional bowel disorders. AIMS: To evaluate the associations of irritable bowel syndrome with several disorders co-morbid with the condition, using both a case-control design and a co-twin control design. METHODS: A sample of 850 Swedish twin pairs, aged 18-85 years, was contacted for a telephone interview. Through a diagnostic algorithm, 72 unrelated cases of irritable bowel syndrome and 216 age- and gender-matched controls were identified. Fifty-eight twin pairs discordant for irritable bowel syndrome were evaluated in co-twin analyses. RESULTS: Renal problems (odds ratio (OR)=3.3; confidence interval (CI), 1.3-8.2), obesity (OR=2.6; CI, 1.0-6.4), underweight in the past (OR=2.4; CI, 1.1-6.4), gluten intolerance (OR=9.0; CI, 1.4-60.1), rheumatoid arthritis (OR=3.2; CI, 1.1-9.4) and poor self-rated health (OR=1.8; CI, 1.0-3.2) were significantly associated with irritable bowel syndrome. In the co-twin analyses, the only factors maintaining significance were renal and recurrent urinary tract problems. CONCLUSIONS: The association between irritable bowel syndrome and renal and urinary tract problems does not reflect a genetic or familial mediation. Eating disorders in childhood represent a familial-environmental influence on irritable bowel syndrome, whereas the association with rheumatoid arthritis and perhaps gluten intolerance probably reflects genetic mediation.

Twenty-four-hour intragastric acidity and plasma gastrin during 3-month treatment with omeprazole in healthy subjects.

BACKGROUND: Prolonged treatment with omeprazole 20 or 40 mg/day is sometimes required, especially for severe oesophagitis. However, information about long-term effects on intragastric acidity and plasma gastrin response with such drug regimens is scarce. METHODS: Sixteen healthy subjects (11 men, 5 women, mean age 29 years) randomly received either 20 or 40 mg of omeprazole once daily (at 08.00 h) for 3 months. Gastric pH was recorded every 6 s for 24 h from noon to noon under standardized conditions, and blood samples were collected hourly in order to determine the 24-h plasma gastrin response on day 0 (pre-entry), day 7, day 28 and day 90. RESULTS: From day 0 to day 7, 24-h median pH increased from 1.7 to 4.6 and mean percentage of time at pH < 4 decreased from 89% to 35% with omeprazole 20 mg. Respective values with omeprazole 40 mg were 1.9 to 4.3, and 89% to 34%. Inhibition of gastric acidity remained unchanged during the 3 months of treatment. Despite similar effects on the basis of 24-h analysis, the decrease in daytime acidity was slightly higher with omeprazole 40 mg than with omeprazole 20 mg. Twenty-four-hour integrated plasma gastrin significantly increased with both drug regimens between day 0 and day 7 (P < 0.01), and between day 7 and day 28 (P < 0.01) with omeprazole 40 mg; there was no significant increase between day 28 and day 90 with either of the drug regimens. CONCLUSION: Omeprazole 20 and 40 mg/day provides long-term stable acid suppression with a progressive increase in gastrin response, stabilizing after 2 months of treatment.

Esomeprazole improves healing and symptom resolution as compared with omeprazole in reflux oesophagitis patients: a randomized controlled trial. The Esomeprazole Study Investigators.

BACKGROUND: The pharmacologic profile of the new proton pump inhibitor esomeprazole has demonstrated advantages over omeprazole that suggest clinical benefits for patients with acid-related disease. METHODS: 1960 patients with endoscopy-confirmed reflux oesophagitis (RO) were randomized to once daily esomeprazole 40 mg (n=654) or 20 mg (n=656), or omeprazole 20 mg (n=650), the standard recommended dose for RO, for up to 8 weeks in a US, multicentre, double-blind trial. The primary efficacy variable was the proportion of patients healed at week 8. Secondary variables included healing and heartburn resolution at week 4, time to first resolution and sustained resolution of heartburn, and per cent of heartburn-free days and nights. Safety and tolerability were also evaluated. RESULTS: Significantly more patients were healed at week 8 with esomeprazole 40 mg (94.1%) and 20 mg (89.9%) vs. omeprazole 20 mg (86.9%), using cumulative life table estimates, ITT analysis (each P < 0.05). Esomeprazole 40 mg was also significantly more effective than omeprazole for healing at week 4 and for all secondary variables evaluating heartburn resolution. The most common adverse events in all treatment groups were headache, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. CONCLUSION: Esomeprazole was more effective than omeprazole in healing and symptom resolution in GERD patients with reflux oesophagitis, and had a tolerability profile comparable to that of omeprazole.