Expanded polyglutamine embedded in the endoplasmic reticulum causes membrane distortion and coincides with Bax insertion.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is important in various cellular functions, such as secretary and membrane protein biosynthesis, lipid synthesis, and calcium storage. ER stress, including membrane distortion, is associated with many diseases such as Huntington's disease. In particular, nuclear envelope distortion is related to neuronal cell death associated with polyglutamine. However, the mechanism by which polyglutamine causes ER membrane distortion remains unclear. We used electron microscopy, fluorescence protease protection assay, and alkaline treatment to analyze the localization of polyglutamine in cells. We characterized polyglutamine embedded in the ER membrane and noted an effect on morphology, including the dilation of ER luminal space and elongation of ER-mitochondria contact sites, in addition to the distortion of the nuclear envelope. The polyglutamine embedded in the ER membrane was observed at the same time as Bax insertion. These results demonstrated that the ER membrane may be a target of polyglutamine, which triggers cell death through Bax.

CED-4 is an mRNA-binding protein that delivers ced-3 mRNA to ribosomes.

Cell death abnormal (ced)-3 and ced-4 genes regulate apoptosis to maintain tissue homeostasis in Caenorhabditis elegans. Apoptosome formation and CED-4 translocation drive CED-3 activation. However, the precise role of CED-4 translocation is not yet fully understood. In this study, using a combination of immunoprecipitation and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction methods in cells and a glutathione-S-transferase pull down assay in a cell-free system, we show that CED-4 binds ced-3 mRNA. In the presence of ced-3 mRNA, CED-4 protein is enriched in the microsomal fraction and interacts with ribosomal protein L10a in mammalian cells, increasing the levels of CED-3. These results suggest that CED-4 forms a complex with ced-3 mRNA and delivers it to ribosomes for translation.

Regulation of activity of P2X7 receptor by its splice variants in cultured mouse astrocytes.

Of purinergic receptors, P2X7 receptor (P2X7R, defined as a full-length receptor) has unique characteristics, and its activation leads to ion channel activity and pore formation, causing cell death. Previously, we demonstrated that P2X7R expressed by nonstimulated astrocyte cultures obtained from SJL-strain mice exhibits constitutive activation, implying its role in maintenance of cellular homeostasis. To obtain novel insights into its physiological roles, we examined whether constitutive activation of P2X7R is regulated by expression of its splice variants in such resting astrocytes, and whether their distinct expression profiles in different mouse strains affect activation levels of astrocytic P2X7Rs. In SJL- and ddY-mouse astrocytes, spontaneous YO-PRO-1 uptake, an indicator of pore activity of P2X7R, was detected, but the uptake by the formers was significantly greater than that by the latter. Between the two mouse strains, there was a difference in their sensitivity of YO-PRO-1 uptake to antagonists, but not in the expression levels and sequences of P2X7R and pannexin-1. Regarding expression of splice variants of P2X7R, expression of P2X7R variant-3 (P2X7R-v3) and -4 (P2X7R-v4), but not variant-2 and -k, was lower in SJL-mouse astrocytes than in ddY-mouse ones. On transfection of P2X7R-v3 and -v4 into SJL-mouse astrocytes, the pore activity was attenuated as in the case of the HEK293T cell-expression system. These findings demonstrate that basal activity of P2X7R expressed by resting astrocytes is negatively regulated by P2X7R-v3 and -v4, and that their distinct expression profiles result in the different activation levels of astrocytic P2X7Rs in different mouse strains.

Polyglutamine expansion disturbs the endoplasmic reticulum formation, leading to caspase-7 activation through Bax.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) plays a pivotal role in cellular functions such as the ER stress response. However, the effect of the ER membrane on caspase activation remains unclear. This study reveals that polyglutamine oligomers augmented at ER induce insertion of Bax into the ER membrane, thereby activating caspase-7. In line with the role of ER in cell death induced by polyglutamine expansion, the ER membrane was found to be disrupted and dilated in the brain of a murine model of Huntington's disease. We can conclude that polyglutamine expansion may drive caspase-7 activation by disrupting the ER membrane.

Improvement of memory recall by quercetin in rodent contextual fear conditioning and human early-stage Alzheimer's disease patients.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) experience a wide array of cognitive deficits, which typically include the impairment of explicit memory. In previous studies, the authors reported that a flavonoid, quercetin, reduces the expression of ATF4 and delays memory deterioration in an early-stage AD mouse model. In the present study, the effects of long-term quercetin intake on memory recall were assessed using contextual fear conditioning in aged wild-type mice. In addition, the present study examined whether memory recall was affected by the intake of quercetin-rich onion (a new cultivar of hybrid onion 'Quergold') powder in early-stage AD patients. In-vivo analysis indicated that memory recall was enhanced in aged mice fed a quercetin-containing diet. Memory recall in early-stage AD patients, determined using the Revised Hasegawa Dementia Scale, was significantly improved by the intake of quercetin-rich onion (Quergold) powder for 4 weeks compared with the intake of control onion ('Mashiro' white onion) powder. These results indicate that quercetin might influence memory recall.

Quercetin reduces eIF2α phosphorylation by GADD34 induction.

The production of amyloid ß (Aß) in the brain from Aß precursor protein (APP) through γ-secretase is important for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our previous studies have demonstrated that autophagy impairment and endoplasmic reticulum stress increase presenilin 1 expression and enhance γ-secretase activity through the phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) and the translation of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4). However, the inhibitory molecules for γ-secretase are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the levels of ATF4 expression are increased in the brain of APP23 AD model mice; furthermore, these levels enhanced in the brain of APP23 mice crossed with obese and diabetic db/db (Lepr(db/db)) mice. A polyhydroxylated flavonoid, quercetin, suppressed presenilin 1 expression and Aß secretion in autophagy-impaired cells by the induction of growth arrest and DNA damaged-inducible gene (GADD) 34, which mediates eIF2α dephosphorylation, leading to decreased ATF4 expression. GADD34 induction was observed in the brain of wild-type mice, and APP23 mice fed quercetin in their diet. After the long-term feeding of quercetin, deterioration in memory assessed by freezing behavior was delayed in APP23 mice. These results indicate that quercetin may reduce eIF2α phosphorylation and ATF4 expression through GADD34 induction in the brain, leading to the improvement of memory in aged mice and the delay of deterioration in memory at the early stage of AD in AD model mice.