Firearm ownership and storage among US college students: results from the healthy minds study, 2021-2022.

The purpose of this study is to address a significant gap in knowledge on firearm ownership rates and storage characteristics in a national sample of college students. We used 2021-2022 survey data from the Healthy Minds Study, which included approximately 88,500 students at over 100 US colleges and universities. We conducted analyses using descriptive statistics and two-sample proportion tests. About 4% of respondents reported having a firearm on or around campus. Among firearm owners, 68.8% reported storing firearms at their permanent address within an hour's drive from campus, and 43.1% reported storing their firearms unloaded and locked. Firearm ownership rates were significantly higher for respondents who were positive for specific risk factors (i.e., in a relationship, suicide ideation, recent binge drinking, and having been physically assaulted) versus those who were negative. These findings support the need for targeted messaging and firearm safety training for college students to reduce firearm-related risks.

Electronic Teen Dating Violence Curves by Age.

Electronic dating violence is a form of violence perpetrated through electronics between dating partners and is associated with worse mental health, greater risk of substance use, and increased risk of in-person forms of dating violence. Though prevalent and seeming to increase in occurrence across adolescence, little is known about trajectories of electronic dating violence throughout adolescence and both risk and protective factors predicting a given trajectory. Latent growth models were used to evaluate change over time in three specific domains of electronic dating violence: harassment, coercion, and monitoring. Data are drawn from two cohorts who were surveyed annually for four years (2013-2017) from age 12 to 15 (n = 543; 48.3% female) and 15 to 18 (n = 597, 46.6% female), respectively. For all three domains of electronic dating violence, a quadratic model fit best. In general, electronic dating violence increased from early adolescence until a peak around age 16 or 17, and then leveled off. Threat-based adverse childhood experiences (i.e., exposure to physical child abuse, parental intimate partner violence, etc.) and earlier engagement in dating behaviors increased long-term risk for both age cohorts. Protective factors such as parental monitoring decreased risk but seemed to only have protective influence at developmentally-specific periods (i.e., during the developmental period of early adolescence). A better understanding of the risk and protective factors that affect the increase of electronic dating violence during adolescence is necessary to develop effective age-appropriate prevention and intervention strategies for youth.

Firearm purchasing during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in households with teens: a national study.

To describe and identify the correlates of firearm purchasing at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic among US families with teenagers. In June-July 2020, we conducted a national survey of 2924 parents and their teenagers in the US. We report results from this survey to describe firearm purchasing behaviors following the start of the COVID-19 pandemic and investigate correlates of purchasing. Between the beginning of the pandemic and July 2020, 10% of households with teenagers purchased a firearm, and 3% became first-time firearm-owning households. Among firearm-owning households, firearm storage was associated with purchasing such that households that stored at least one firearm loaded and unlocked were more likely to purchase a firearm (OR: 2.02[1.07-3.79]) compared to households that stored all firearms unloaded and/or locked. Firearms purchased at the beginning of the pandemic were more likely to go to homes where at least one firearm was stored loaded and unlocked, which may contribute to increased risk for teen firearm injury and death.

Adolescent Risk of Dating Violence and Electronic Dating Abuse: A Latent Class Analysis.

Electronic forms of dating violence among youth are common yet little is known about how these forms of violence overlap with the commonly studied domains of physical, sexual and verbal teen dating violence. Using factor analysis and latent class analysis, this study identifies patterns of electronic, verbal, physical and sexual dating violence victimization and perpetration in 9th and 12th graders. Data are from 470 9th (n = 190; 60.5% female; mean age = 12.0 years, age range: 11.3-13.8) and 12th graders (n = 280; 63.9% female; mean age = 14.9 years, age range: 14.0-16.6) from southeastern Michigan. A 5-class solution for 9th graders and a 6-class solution for 12th graders were selected given fit and interpretability. Classes were characterized by domain(s) of violence, as opposed to perpetration or victimization. Three domains of electronic dating aggression were identified: monitoring, harassment, and coercion. Electronic dating aggression was present in the majority of classes, and overlapped substantially with other domains of violence. The highest risk class had risk of victimization and perpetration for all types of dating violence (electronic monitoring, electronic harassment, electronic coercion, verbal violence, physical violence and sexual violence). Drug use and experiencing one or more adverse childhood experiences predicted membership in a higher risk group for the older cohort, while alcohol consumption predicted higher risk for the younger cohort. The findings from this study show overlap between dating violence domains and imply that domains of electronic dating violence are important to consider in conjunction with physical, sexual and verbal domains, to address teen dating violence.

Adolescent Exposure to Violence and Intimate-Partner Violence Mediated by Mental Distress.

Adolescent exposure to violence (ETV) is associated with multiple negative health outcomes. Despite evidence linking adolescent ETV with later experiences of physical, sexual and psychological intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization, more longitudinal evidence is needed, and potential explanatory mechanisms should be tested. We examine data collected over 17 years to analyze the mediating effects of mental distress and substance use on the association between cumulative ETV in adolescence and IPV in adulthood. Adolescent (M ages=15-18 years) ETV was associated with IPV outcomes in adulthood (M age=32 years). In parallel mediation models, mental distress in emerging adulthood (M ages=20-23 years) fully mediated the effect of adolescent ETV on later IPV outcomes. Although substance use predicted experience of IPV, it did not mediate the association between ETV and IPV. These findings have implications for understanding trajectories of risk following violence exposure and inform intervention work through identifying developmental periods where ETV contributes to later IPV victimization.

Longitudinal pathway from violence exposure to firearm carriage among adolescents: The role of future expectation.

INTRODUCTION: Exposure to violence is a risk factor for firearm carriage. Youth exposed to violence also have difficulty envisioning positive future outcomes (e.g., educational outcomes), which can increase the likelihood of firearm carriage over time. Researchers, however, have not yet examined whether changes in exposure to violence over time can influence the developmental trajectories of firearm carriage. To address this gap, we (1) examined the longitudinal association between exposure to violence and firearm carriage (grades 9 to 12) and then (2) examined whether changes in future expectations mediated this longitudinal association. METHOD: The longitudinal association between exposure to violence and firearm carriage through future expectations was examined among 850 adolescents from the Flint Adolescent Study. Participants were recruited from four high schools in a midwestern city in the United States. Parallel latent growth models and latent growth mediation models were estimated. RESULTS: A positive association was observed between the rate of change in exposure to violence and firearm carriage. Exposure to violence also indirectly increased the risk for firearm carriage over time by decreasing future expectation in the 9th grade. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the idea that helping youth develop positive attitude about educational success may help reduce firearm carriage. Increasing positive expectations about future may help prevent firearm carriage within the context of violence exposure.

Examining contextual and relational factors influencing perceptions of societal and interpersonal mattering among rural youth.

Researchers have shown that interpersonal and societal mattering have important implications for adolescent development. Yet, few researchers have focused on what predicts mattering, particularly societal mattering, and even fewer have studied mattering among rural youth. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore how perceived contextual and relationship factors affect rural youths' perceptions of societal and interpersonal mattering. Participants for this study were 381 middle school youth from two rural school districts in Michigan. Using structural equation modeling, we found that more positive perceptions regarding opportunities for youth involvement, availability of community resources, student input in decision-making at school, and support for autonomy at school were associated with greater perceptions of societal mattering. In addition, greater support from friends, higher quality parent-child communication, and more parental involvement were associated with a greater sense of interpersonal mattering. This study identifies important relational and contextual factors that can be enhanced in an effort to foster greater perceptions of interpersonal and societal mattering among rural youth, and ultimately help us to promote positive youth development.

Psychological pathway from racial discrimination to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption: Religious coping as a protective factor.

While racial discrimination (RD) is associated with increased alcohol-related problems among African Americans (AAs), researchers have not examined how RD contributes to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption over time. In addition, the protective role of religious coping has been discussed but not formally tested in pathways connecting RD to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption. To address this gap, we estimated latent growth mediation models in a sample of 465 AA emerging adults. We found that RD increased physical consequences of alcohol consumption over time through psychological distress. After identifying two profiles of religious coping (i.e., low and high religious coping), RD indirectly influenced the physical consequences of alcohol consumption through psychological distress among AAs in the low religious coping group. Our results signal the importance of developing alcohol-misuse prevention programs that address the psychological consequences of RD. Integrating culturally tailored coping strategies (e.g., religious coping) may bolster the efficacy of these prevention programs.

Predictors of transitions in firearm assault behavior among drug-using youth presenting to an urban emergency department.

Risk and protective factors for firearm assault (FA) have been established, but little is known about factor preceding transitions in FA behavior. We modeled covariate effects on individuals' transitions in FA behavior (Yes/No) using inhomogeneous, continuous-time, Markov Chains. 3287 assessments were made across five initial biannual follow-ups, and two additional biannual follow-ups (an average of 2.2 years later) from a follow-on study; 2687 pairs of transitions were observed (2414 No-FA → No-FA; 89 No-FA → FA; 121 FA → No-FA; 63 FA → FA). Non-firearm peer violence (HR = 2.31, 95% CI [1.28,4.21]), firearm victimization (HR = 2.57, 95% CI [1.31,5.04]), and marijuana ASSIST sum (HR = 1.27, 95% CI [1.05,1.54]) all preceded transitions into FA, but not transitions out of FA. Delinquent peer associations both hastened transitions into FA (HR = 1.19, 95% CI [1.00,1.40]) and slowed transitions out of FA (HR = 0.84, 95% CI:[0.72,1.00]), with analogous findings regarding attitudes favoring retaliation. Efforts to prevent FA initiation should focus on those currently reporting firearm violence victimization, and on factors indicating an escalating delinquency trajectory (e.g. non-firearm violence, substance use), while programs focusing on peer influences and social norms may be effective at preventing FA regardless of current FA status.

Age-Specific Associations Between Violence Exposure and Past 30-Day Marijuana and Alcohol Use.

Using data from a cohort study of students at risk for high school dropout, we examined associations between violence exposure and past 30-day alcohol and marijuana use. We used varying-coefficient regression with person-level fixed effects to estimate how those associations changed within-person across ages approximately 14-23. Generally, violence perpetration was most strongly associated with substance use, within-person. Substance use became increasingly associated with both observed violence and violence perpetration during early/middle adolescence; this increase continued longer into development (age 18+) for alcohol use. Across most of the age range studied here, violence victimization was minimally associated with within-person changes in substance use. Results indicate age-specific associations between violence exposure and alcohol and other drug use, which may be useful for informing prevention strategies.

Psychological pathways from racial discrimination to cortisol in African American males and females.

The association between racial discrimination (discrimination) and stress-related alterations in the neuroendocrine response-namely, cortisol secretion-is well documented in African Americans (AAs). Dysregulation in production of cortisol has been implicated as a contributor to racial health disparities. Guided by Clark et al. (Am Psychol 54(10):805-816, 1999. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805 ) biopsychosocial model of racism and health, the present study examined the psychological pathways that link discrimination to total cortisol concentrations in AA males and females. In a sample of 312 AA emerging adults (45.5% males; ages 21-23), symptoms of anxiety, but not depression, mediated the relation between discrimination and total concentrations of cortisol. In addition, the results did not reveal sex differences in the direct and indirect pathways. These findings advance our understanding of racial health disparities by suggesting that the psychological consequences of discrimination can uniquely promote physiologic dysregulation in AAs.

Busy Streets Theory: The Effects of Community-engaged Greening on Violence.

Lack of maintenance on vacant neighborhood lots is associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress for nearby residents. Overgrown grasses and dense brush provide hiding spots for criminals and space to conduct illicit activities. This study builds upon previous research by investigating greening programs that engage community members to conduct routine maintenance on vacant lots within their neighborhoods. The Clean & Green program is a community-based solution that facilitates resident-driven routine maintenance of vacant lots in a midsized, Midwestern city. We use mixed effects regression to compare assault and violent crime counts on streets where vacant lot(s) are maintained by community members (N = 216) versus streets where vacant lots were left alone (N = 446) over a 5-year timeframe (2009-2013). Street segments with vacant lots maintained through the Clean & Green program had nearly 40% fewer assaults and violent crimes than street segments with vacant, abandoned lots, which held across 4 years with a large sample and efforts to test counterfactual explanations. Community-engaged greening programs may not only provide a solution to vacant lot maintenance, but also work as a crime prevention or reduction strategy. Engaging the community to maintain vacant lots in their neighborhood reduces costs and may increase the sustainability of the program.

Friendship Attachment Style Moderates the Effect of Adolescent Exposure to Violence on Emerging Adult Depression and Anxiety Trajectories.

Exposure to violence during adolescence is associated with increased risk behaviors and mental health problems in adulthood. Friendship attachment during adolescence may, however, mitigate the negative effects of exposure to violence on trajectories of depression and anxiety in young adulthood. In this study, we used growth curve modeling to examine associations between exposure to violence and mental health outcomes, followed by multi-group analyses with friendship attachment as the moderator. The sample was drawn from a longitudinal study (12 waves; 1994-2012) of 676 (54% female) urban high school students. We found strong positive associations between exposure to violence during adolescence and later self-reported depressive and anxiety symptoms. Notably, securely attached adolescents reported faster decreases in mental health symptoms as a function of violence relative to their insecurely attached peers as they transitioned into adulthood.

Exposure to Violence during Adolescence as a Predictor of Perceived Stress Trajectories in Emerging Adulthood.

Early exposure to violence during adolescence is related to negative psycho-social outcomes later in life. In the present study, we examined the influence of cumulative exposure to violence during adolescence and trajectories of perceived stress in emerging adulthood in a sample of at-risk urban youth (N = 850; 80.1% African American; 50% female). Growth curve modeling indicated an overall decrease in reported stress as individuals aged. Baseline levels of violence exposure (Mage = 14.9) were associated with higher perceived stress levels in emerging adulthood (Mage = 20.1), but also slightly more negative perceived stress slopes from adolescence into emerging adulthood (Mage = 15.9-22.1). Individuals reporting increased violence exposure over time during adolescence also reported higher perceived stress levels in emerging adulthood (Mage = 20.1). Associations held after controlling for demographics and baseline functioning variables. The results suggest that violence exposure may disrupt normative adaptation to daily stressors in emerging adulthood.

A Comprehensive Prevention Approach to Reducing Assault Offenses and Assault Injuries among Youth.

Since 2011, the CDC-funded Michigan Youth Violence Prevention Center (MI-YVPC), working with community partners, has implemented a comprehensive prevention approach to reducing youth violence in Flint, MI, based on public health principles. MI-YVPC employed an intervention strategy that capitalizes on existing community resources and application of evidence-based programs using a social-ecological approach to change. We evaluated the combined effect of six programs in reducing assaults and injury among 10-24 year olds in the intervention area relative to a matched comparison community. We used generalized linear mixed models to examine change in the intervention area counts of reported assault offenses and assault injury presentation relative to the comparison area over a period 6 years prior- and 30 months post-intervention. Results indicated that youth victimization and assault injuries fell in the intervention area subsequent to the initiation of the interventions and that these reductions were sustained over time. Our evaluation demonstrated that a comprehensive multi-level approach can be effective for reducing youth violence and injury.

Predicting violent behavior: The role of violence exposure and future educational aspirations during adolescence.

Few researchers have explored future educational aspirations as a promotive factor against exposure to community violence in relation to adolescents' violent behavior over time. The present study examined the direct and indirect effect of exposure to community violence prior to 9th grade on attitudes about violence and violent behavior in 12th grade, and violent behavior at age 22 via 9th grade future educational aspirations in a sample of urban African American youth (n = 681; 49% male). Multi-group SEM was used to test the moderating effect of gender. Exposure to violence was associated with lower future educational aspirations. For boys, attitudes about violence directly predicted violent behavior at age 22. For boys, future educational aspirations indirectly predicted less violent behavior at age 22. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Relationships Among Disease, Social Support, and Perceived Health: A Lifespan Approach.

We examined the relationship between the cumulative presence of major disease (cancer, stroke, diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension), social support, and self-reported general and emotional well-being in a community representative sample of predominantly White and African American respondents (N = 1349). Across all ages, greater presence of disease predicted poorer reported general health, and predicted lower emotional well-being for respondents 40 and above. In contrast, social support predicted better-reported general and emotional well-being.We predicted that different types of social support (blood relatives, children, friends, community members) would be relatively more important for health in different age groups based on a lifespan or life stage model. This hypothesis was supported; across all ages, social support was related to better reported general and emotional health, but sources of support differed by age. Broadly, those in younger age groups tended to list familial members as their strongest sources of support, whereas older group members listed their friends and community members. As a whole, social support mediated the effect of disease on reported wellbeing,however, moderated mediation by type of support was not significant. The results are consistent with a lifespan approach to changing social ties throughout the life course.

Transitions in Current Substance Use from Adolescence to Early-Adulthood.

Substance use behaviors do not occur in isolation of one another and are not static over time. As adolescents age into early adulthood, there may be dynamic changes in their substance use behaviors, and these changes may be influenced by family and school factors. The current study uses Latent Transition Analysis to examine these changes by measuring transitions among different substance use profiles based on past 30-day alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use, and by estimating associations with demographic, family and school factors. Data were from youth (n = 850; 80% African American, 17% white, 3% mixed race, 50% female and 50% male) in grade 10 (Time 1), with 24- (Time 2) and 48-month (Time 3) follow-ups. Substance use profiles included Non-users (54%), Alcohol and Marijuana Users (20%), and Alcohol, Tobacco and Marijuana Users (26%). There were considerable transitions among profiles from Time 1 to Time 2, and fewer transitions from Time 2 to Time 3. At Time 1, African American race and positive school attitudes were negatively associated with being an Alcohol and Marijuana User, and being an Alcohol, Tobacco and Marijuana User. Family conflict, parental school involvement, female gender and African American race were associated with transitions among substance use profiles. Implications are discussed for a better understanding of transitions in substance use profiles, and for promoting maintenance of non-use and transitions from substance using profiles to non-use.

Cross-domain influences on youth risky driving behaviors: A developmental cascade analysis.

We apply a developmental cascade approach to study the longitudinal, cross-domain effects of negative family influence, deviant peer associations, and individual substance use on risky driving among a sample of low-income African American youth. Participants (N = 681) were followed from age 16 to age 21. Using structural equation modeling, we examined conceptual models of pathways to risky driving. Results indicated strong associations between domains within time points among negative family environment, deviant peer associations, individual substance use, and risky driving. Deviant peer associations were related to future risky driving. Alcohol and marijuana use also predicted later deviant peer relationships. The pathways were observed both between age 16 and 18 and between age 18 and 21. Consistent with the cascade hypotheses, we found that risks in one domain manifested as risks in the same domain across time in addition to spreading to other domains.