Regulation of dendritic development by the ARF exchange factor ARNO.

Here we analyzed the role of ARF6, a member of the ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) family of small GTPases, in dendritic arbor development in rat hippocampal neurons in culture. Overexpression of the inactive form of the GTP exchange factor ARNO (ARF nucleotide binding site opener) or inactive ARF6 enhanced dendritic branching, whereas coexpression of either Rac1 (a member of the Rho family of small GTPases known to control dendritic dynamics and growth) or active ARF6 with inactive ARNO eliminated the enhanced branching effect. These results indicate that the ARF family of small GTPases contributes to the regulation of dendritic branching, and that ARF6 activation turns on two independent pathways that suppress dendritic branching in vivo: one through Rac1 and the other through ARF6.

ARNO and ARF6 regulate axonal elongation and branching through downstream activation of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase alpha.

In the developing nervous system, controlled neurite extension and branching are critical for the establishment of connections between neurons and their targets. Although much is known about the regulation of axonal development, many of the molecular events that regulate axonal extension remain unknown. ADP-ribosylation factor nucleotide-binding site opener (ARNO) and ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF)6 have important roles in the regulation of the cytoskeleton as well as membrane trafficking. To investigate the role of these molecules in axonogenesis, we expressed ARNO and ARF6 in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. Expression of catalytically inactive ARNO or dominant negative ARF6 resulted in enhanced axonal extension and branching and this effect was abrogated by coexpression of constitutively active ARF6. We sought to identify the downstream effectors of ARF6 during neurite extension by coexpressing phosphatidyl-inositol-4-phosphate 5-Kinase alpha [PI(4)P 5-Kinase alpha] with catalytically inactive ARNO and dominant negative ARF6. We found that PI(4)P 5-Kinase alpha plays a role in neurite extension and branching downstream of ARF6. Also, expression of inactive ARNO/ARF6 depleted the actin binding protein mammalian ena (Mena) from the growth cone leading edge, indicating that these effects on axonogenesis may be mediated by changes in cytoskeletal dynamics. These results suggest that ARNO and ARF6, through PI(4)P 5-Kinase alpha, regulate axonal elongation and branching during neuronal development.

Functional assay of ARNO and ARF6 in neurite elongation and branching.

During development of the nervous system, neurite outgrowth is necessary for the formation of connections between nerve cells. Neurons are highly polarized cells that send out distinct processes, axons, and dendrites; however, the molecular regulation of the differential growth of these processes remains incompletely understood. Primary cultures of rat hippocampal neurons have been used to study many aspects of neuronal cell biology, including neurite extension, establishment of polarity, biogenesis of synapses, and membrane trafficking. After attachment to the substrate, hippocampal neurons begin sending out multiple processes by approximately 12 h after plating. The axonal process is derived from one of these processes, and is evident after 48 h in culture. Complete polarity of axons and dendrites is established after 7 days in culture. The establishment of these cultures and the ability to transfect them with potential regulatory genes allows the researcher to dissect out the pathways relevant to neurite extension. To study the role of small GTPases in neurite extension and branching, we describe methods for culture of hippocampal neurons, for transfection of these cells, and assessment of neurite extension and branching.

Clathrin-independent carriers form a high capacity endocytic sorting system at the leading edge of migrating cells.

Although the importance of clathrin- and caveolin-independent endocytic pathways has recently emerged, key aspects of these routes remain unknown. Using quantitative ultrastructural approaches, we show that clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) account for approximately three times the volume internalized by the clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway, forming the major pathway involved in uptake of fluid and bulk membrane in fibroblasts. Electron tomographic analysis of the 3D morphology of the earliest carriers shows that they are multidomain organelles that form a complex sorting station as they mature. Proteomic analysis provides direct links between CLICs, cellular adhesion turnover, and migration. Consistent with this, CLIC-mediated endocytosis of key cargo proteins, CD44 and Thy-1, is polarized at the leading edge of migrating fibroblasts, while transient ablation of CLICs impairs their ability to migrate. These studies provide the first quantitative ultrastructural analysis and molecular characterization of the major endocytic pathway in fibroblasts, a pathway that provides rapid membrane turnover at the leading edge of migrating cells.

Caveolin regulates endocytosis of the muscle repair protein, dysferlin.

Dysferlin and Caveolin-3 are plasma membrane proteins associated with muscular dystrophy. Patients with mutations in the CAV3 gene show dysferlin mislocalization in muscle cells. By utilizing caveolin-null cells, expression of caveolin mutants, and different mutants of dysferlin, we have dissected the site of action of caveolin with respect to dysferlin trafficking pathways. We now show that Caveolin-1 or -3 can facilitate exit of a dysferlin mutant that accumulates in the Golgi complex of Cav1(-/-) cells. In contrast, wild type dysferlin reaches the plasma membrane but is rapidly endocytosed in Cav1(-/-) cells. We demonstrate that the primary effect of caveolin is to cause surface retention of dysferlin. Caveolin-1 or Caveolin-3, but not specific caveolin mutants, inhibit endocytosis of dysferlin through a clathrin-independent pathway colocalizing with internalized glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins. Our results provide new insights into the role of this endocytic pathway in surface remodeling of specific surface components. In addition, they highlight a novel mechanism of action of caveolins relevant to the pathogenic mechanisms underlying caveolin-associated disease.

Aberrant dysferlin trafficking in cells lacking caveolin or expressing dystrophy mutants of caveolin-3.

Mutations in the dysferlin (DYSF) and caveolin-3 (CAV3) genes are associated with muscle disease. Dysferlin is mislocalized, by an unknown mechanism, in muscle from patients with mutations in caveolin-3 (Cav-3). To examine the link between Cav-3 mutations and dysferlin mistargeting, we studied their localization at high resolution in muscle fibers, in a model muscle cell line, and upon heterologous expression of dysferlin in muscle cell lines and in wild-type or caveolin-null fibroblasts. Dysferlin shows only partial overlap with Cav-3 on the surface of isolated muscle fibers but co-localizes with Cav-3 in developing transverse (T)-tubules in muscle cell lines. Heterologously expressed dystrophy-associated mutant Cav3R26Q accumulates in the Golgi complex of muscle cell lines or fibroblasts. Cav3R26Q and other Golgi-associated mutants of both Cav-3 (Cav3P104L) and Cav-1 (Cav1P132L) caused a dramatic redistribution of dysferlin to the Golgi complex. Heterologously expressed epitope-tagged dysferlin associates with the plasma membrane in primary fibroblasts and muscle cells. Transport to the cell surface is impaired in the absence of Cav-1 or Cav-3 showing that caveolins are essential for dysferlin association with the PM. These results suggest a functional role for caveolins in a novel post-Golgi trafficking pathway followed by dysferlin.