The short isoform of the CEACAM1 receptor in intestinal T cells regulates mucosal immunity and homeostasis via Tfh cell induction.

Carcinoembryonic antigen cell adhesion molecule like I (CEACAM1) is expressed on activated T cells and signals through either a long (L) cytoplasmic tail containing immune receptor tyrosine based inhibitory motifs, which provide inhibitory function, or a short (S) cytoplasmic tail with an unknown role. Previous studies on peripheral T cells show that CEACAM1-L isoforms predominate with little to no detectable CEACAM1-S isoforms in mouse and human. We show here that this was not the case in tissue resident T cells of intestines and gut associated lymphoid tissues, which demonstrated predominant expression of CEACAM1-S isoforms relative to CEACAM1-L isoforms in human and mouse. This tissue resident predominance of CEACAM1-S expression was determined by the intestinal environment where it served a stimulatory function leading to the regulation of T cell subsets associated with the generation of secretory IgA immunity, the regulation of mucosal commensalism, and defense of the barrier against enteropathogens.

Identification of H209 as Essential for pH 8-Triggered Receptor-Independent Syncytium Formation by S Protein of Mouse Hepatitis Virus A59.

The spike glycoprotein (S) of murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) strain A59 uses murine carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1a as its receptor for cell entry, but S protein can also be triggered in the absence of receptor by pH 8.0 alone at 37°C. The mechanism by which conformational changes of this S glycoprotein can be triggered by pH 8.0 has not yet been determined. Here, we show that MHV-A59 S protein is triggered by pH 8.0 at 37°C to induce receptor-independent syncytium (RIS) formation on 293T cells, and that the conformational changes in S proteins triggered by pH 8.0 are very similar to those triggered by receptor binding. We systemically mutated each of 15 histidine residues in S protein and found that H209 is essential for pH 8.0-triggered RIS formation, while H179, H441, H643, and H759 also play important roles in this process. Replacement of H209 with Ala had no effect on receptor binding, but in murine 17Cl.1 cells mutant H209A MHV-A59 showed delayed growth kinetics and was readily outcompeted by wild-type virus when mixed together, indicating that the H209A mutation caused a defect in virus fitness. Finally, the H209A mutation significantly increased the thermostability of S protein in its prefusion conformation, which may raise the energy barrier for conformational change of S protein required for membrane fusion and lead to a decrease in virus fitness in cell culture. Thus, MHV-A59 may have evolved to lower the stability of its S protein in order to increase virus fitness.IMPORTANCE Enveloped viruses enter cells through fusion of viral and cellular membranes, and the process is mediated by interactions between viral envelope proteins and their host receptors. In the prefusion conformation, viral envelope proteins are metastable, and activation to the fusion conformation is tightly regulated, since premature activation would lead to loss of viral infectivity. The stability of viral envelope proteins greatly influences their activation and virus fitness. Here, we report that, similar to the A82V mutation in Ebola glycoprotein, in the S glycoprotein of murine coronavirus MHV-A59, the histidine residue at position of 209 significantly affects the thermal stability of the S protein, determines whether S protein can be activated at 37°C by either pH 8.0 alone or by receptor binding, and affects viral fitness in cell culture. Thus, the spike glycoprotein of MHV-A59 has evolved to retain histidine at position 209 to optimize virus fitness.

Structural and Molecular Evidence Suggesting Coronavirus-driven Evolution of Mouse Receptor.

Hosts and pathogens are locked in an evolutionary arms race. To infect mice, mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) has evolved to recognize mouse CEACAM1a (mCEACAM1a) as its receptor. To elude MHV infections, mice may have evolved a variant allele from the Ceacam1a gene, called Ceacam1b, producing mCEACAM1b, which is a much poorer MHV receptor than mCEACAM1a. Previous studies showed that sequence differences between mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b in a critical MHV-binding CC' loop partially account for the low receptor activity of mCEACAM1b, but detailed structural and molecular mechanisms for the differential MHV receptor activities of mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b remained elusive. Here we have determined the crystal structure of mCEACAM1b and identified the structural differences and additional residue differences between mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b that affect MHV binding and entry. These differences include conformational alterations of the CC' loop as well as residue variations in other MHV-binding regions, including ß-strands C' and C'' and loop C'C''. Using pseudovirus entry and protein-protein binding assays, we show that substituting the structural and residue features from mCEACAM1b into mCEACAM1a reduced the viral receptor activity of mCEACAM1a, whereas substituting the reverse changes from mCEACAM1a into mCEACAM1b increased the viral receptor activity of mCEACAM1b. These results elucidate the detailed molecular mechanism for how mice may have kept pace in the evolutionary arms race with MHV by undergoing structural and residue changes in the MHV receptor, providing insight into this possible example of pathogen-driven evolution of a host receptor protein.

Identification of the Fusion Peptide-Containing Region in Betacoronavirus Spike Glycoproteins.

UNLABELLED: The fusion peptides (FP) play an essential role in fusion of viral envelope with cellular membranes. The location and properties of the FPs in the spike (S) glycoproteins of different coronaviruses (CoV) have not yet been determined. Through amino acid sequence analysis of S proteins of representative CoVs, we identified a common region as a possible FP (pFP) that shares the characteristics of FPs of class I viral fusion proteins, including high Ala/Gly content, intermediate hydrophobicity, and few charged residues. To test the hypothesis that this region contains the CoV FP, we systemically mutated every residue in the pFP of Middle East respiratory syndrome betacoronavirus (MERS-CoV) and found that 11 of the 22 residues in the pFP (from G953 to L964, except for A956) were essential for S protein-mediated cell-cell fusion and virus entry. The synthetic MERS-CoV pFP core peptide (955IAGVGWTAGL964) induced extensive fusion of liposome membranes, while mutant peptide failed to induce any lipid mixing. We also selectively mutated residues in pFPs of two other ß-CoVs, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and mouse hepatitis virus (MHV). Although the amino acid sequences of these two pFPs differed significantly from that of MERS-CoV and each other, most of the pFP mutants of SARS-CoV and MHV also failed to mediate membrane fusion, suggesting that these pFPs are also the functional FPs. Thus, the FPs of 3 different lineages of ß-CoVs are conserved in location within the S glycoproteins and in their functions, although their amino acid sequences have diverged significantly during CoV evolution. IMPORTANCE: Within the class I viral fusion proteins of many enveloped viruses, the FP is the critical mediator of fusion of the viral envelope with host cell membranes leading to virus infection. FPs from within a virus family, like influenza viruses or human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV), tend to share high amino acid sequence identity. In this study, we determined the location and amino acid sequences of the FPs of S glycoproteins of 3 ß-CoVs, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and MHV, and demonstrated that they were essential for mediating cell-cell fusion and virus entry. Interestingly, in marked contrast to the FPs of influenza and HIV, the primary amino acid sequences of the FPs of ß-CoVs in 3 different lineages differed significantly. Thus, during evolution the FPs of ß-CoVs have diverged significantly in their primary sequences while maintaining the same essential biological functions. Our findings identify a potential new target for development of drugs against CoVs.

Identification of the Receptor-Binding Domain of the Spike Glycoprotein of Human Betacoronavirus HKU1.

UNLABELLED: Coronavirus spike (S) glycoproteins mediate receptor binding, membrane fusion, and virus entry and determine host range. Murine betacoronavirus (ß-CoV) in group A uses the N-terminal domain (NTD) of S protein to bind to its receptor, whereas the ß-CoVs severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV in group B and Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV in group C and several α-CoVs use the downstream C domain in their S proteins to recognize their receptor proteins. To identify the receptor-binding domain in the spike of human ß-CoV HKU1 in group A, we generated and mapped a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to the ectodomain of HKU1 spike protein. They did not cross-react with S proteins of any other CoV tested. Most of the HKU1 spike MAbs recognized epitopes in the C domain between amino acids 535 and 673, indicating that this region is immunodominant. Two of the MAbs blocked HKU1 virus infection of primary human tracheal-bronchial epithelial (HTBE) cells. Preincubation of HTBE cells with a truncated HKU1 S protein that includes the C domain blocked infection with HKU1 virus, but preincubation of cells with truncated S protein containing only the NTD did not block infection. These data suggest that the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of HKU1 spike protein is located in the C domain, where the spike proteins of α-CoVs and ß-CoVs in groups B and C bind to their specific receptor proteins. Thus, two ß-CoVs in group A, HKU1 and murine CoV, have evolved to use different regions of their spike glycoproteins to recognize their respective receptor proteins. IMPORTANCE: Mouse hepatitis virus, a ß-CoV in group A, uses the galectin-like NTD in its spike protein to bind its receptor protein, while HCoV-OC43, another ß-CoV in group A, uses the NTD to bind to its sialic-acid containing receptor. In marked contrast, the NTD of the spike glycoprotein of human respiratory ß-CoV HKU1, which is also in group A, does not bind sugar. In this study, we showed that for the spike protein of HKU1, the purified C domain, downstream of the NTD, could block HKU1 virus infection of human respiratory epithelial cells, and that several monoclonal antibodies that mapped to the C domain neutralized virus infectivity. Thus, the receptor-binding domain of HKU1 spike glycoprotein is located in the C domain. Surprisingly, two ß-CoVs in group A, mouse hepatitis virus and HKU1, have evolved to use different regions of their spike glycoproteins to recognize their respective receptors.

Platform technology to generate broadly cross-reactive antibodies to α-helical epitopes in hemagglutinin proteins from influenza A viruses.

We have utilized a de novo designed two-stranded α-helical coiled-coil template to display conserved α-helical epitopes from the stem region of hemagglutinin (HA) glycoproteins of influenza A. The immunogens have all the surface-exposed residues of the native α-helix in the native HA protein of interest displayed on the surface of the two-stranded α-helical coiled-coil template. This template when used as an immunogen elicits polyclonal antibodies which bind to the α-helix in the native protein. We investigated the highly conserved sequence region 421-476 of HA by inserting 21 or 28 residue sequences from this region into our template. The cross-reactivity of the resulting rabbit polyclonal antibodies prepared to these immunogens was determined using a series of HA proteins from H1N1, H2N2, H3N2, H5N1, H7N7, and H7N9 virus strains which are representative of Group 1 and Group 2 virus subtypes of influenza A. Antibodies from region 449-476 were Group 1 specific. Antibodies to region 421-448 showed the greatest degree of cross-reactivity to Group 1 and Group 2 and suggested that this region has a great potential as a "universal" synthetic peptide vaccine for influenza A. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers (Pept Sci) 106: 144-159, 2016.

Isolation, propagation, genome analysis and epidemiology of HKU1 betacoronaviruses.

From 1 January 2009 to 31 May 2013, 15 287 respiratory specimens submitted to the Clinical Virology Laboratory at the Children's Hospital Colorado were tested for human coronavirus RNA by reverse transcription-PCR. Human coronaviruses HKU1, OC43, 229E and NL63 co-circulated during each of the respiratory seasons but with significant year-to-year variability, and cumulatively accounted for 7.4-15.6 % of all samples tested during the months of peak activity. A total of 79 (0.5 % prevalence) specimens were positive for human betacoronavirus HKU1 RNA. Genotypes HKU1 A and B were both isolated from clinical specimens and propagated on primary human tracheal-bronchial epithelial cells cultured at the air-liquid interface and were neutralized in vitro by human intravenous immunoglobulin and by polyclonal rabbit antibodies to the spike glycoprotein of HKU1. Phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences of seven full-length genomes of Colorado HKU1 viruses and the spike glycoproteins from four additional HKU1 viruses from Colorado and three from Brazil demonstrated remarkable conservation of these sequences with genotypes circulating in Hong Kong and France. Within genotype A, all but one of the Colorado HKU1 sequences formed a unique subclade defined by three amino acid substitutions (W197F, F613Y and S752F) in the spike glycoprotein and exhibited a unique signature in the acidic tandem repeat in the N-terminal region of the nsp3 subdomain. Elucidating the function of and mechanisms responsible for the formation of these varying tandem repeats will increase our understanding of the replication process and pathogenicity of HKU1 and potentially of other coronaviruses.

Crystal structure of mouse coronavirus receptor-binding domain complexed with its murine receptor.

Coronaviruses have evolved diverse mechanisms to recognize different receptors for their cross-species transmission and host-range expansion. Mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) uses the N-terminal domain (NTD) of its spike protein as its receptor-binding domain. Here we present the crystal structure of MHV NTD complexed with its receptor murine carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1a (mCEACAM1a). Unexpectedly, MHV NTD contains a core structure that has the same ß-sandwich fold as human galectins (S-lectins) and additional structural motifs that bind to the N-terminal Ig-like domain of mCEACAM1a. Despite its galectin fold, MHV NTD does not bind sugars, but instead binds mCEACAM1a through exclusive protein-protein interactions. Critical contacts at the interface have been confirmed by mutagenesis, providing a structural basis for viral and host specificities of coronavirus/CEACAM1 interactions. Sugar-binding assays reveal that galectin-like NTDs of some coronaviruses such as human coronavirus OC43 and bovine coronavirus bind sugars. Structural analysis and mutagenesis localize the sugar-binding site in coronavirus NTDs to be above the ß-sandwich core. We propose that coronavirus NTDs originated from a host galectin and retained sugar-binding functions in some contemporary coronaviruses, but evolved new structural features in MHV for mCEACAM1a binding.

Innate immune response of human alveolar type II cells infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-coronavirus (CoV) produces a devastating primary viral pneumonia with diffuse alveolar damage and a marked increase in circulating cytokines. One of the major cell types to be infected is the alveolar type II cell. However, the innate immune response of primary human alveolar epithelial cells infected with SARS-CoV has not been defined. Our objectives included developing a culture system permissive for SARS-CoV infection in primary human type II cells and defining their innate immune response. Culturing primary human alveolar type II cells at an air-liquid interface (A/L) improved their differentiation and greatly increased their susceptibility to infection, allowing us to define their primary interferon and chemokine responses. Viral antigens were detected in the cytoplasm of infected type II cells, electron micrographs demonstrated secretory vesicles filled with virions, virus RNA concentrations increased with time, and infectious virions were released by exocytosis from the apical surface of polarized type II cells. A marked increase was evident in the mRNA concentrations of interferon-ß and interferon-λ (IL-29) and in a large number of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. A surprising finding involved the variability of expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme-2, the SARS-CoV receptor, in type II cells from different donors. In conclusion, the cultivation of alveolar type II cells at an air-liquid interface provides primary cultures in which to study the pulmonary innate immune responses to infection with SARS-CoV, and to explore possible therapeutic approaches to modulating these innate immune responses.

Crystal structure of bovine coronavirus spike protein lectin domain.

The spike protein N-terminal domains (NTDs) of bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) recognize sugar and protein receptors, respectively, despite their significant sequence homology. We recently determined the crystal structure of MHV NTD complexed with its protein receptor murine carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1), which surprisingly revealed a human galectin (galactose-binding lectin) fold in MHV NTD. Here, we have determined at 1.55 Å resolution the crystal structure of BCoV NTD, which also has the human galectin fold. Using mutagenesis, we have located the sugar-binding site in BCoV NTD, which overlaps with the galactose-binding site in human galectins. Using a glycan array screen, we have identified 5-N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid as the preferred sugar substrate for BCoV NTD. Subtle structural differences between BCoV and MHV NTDs, primarily involving different conformations of receptor-binding loops, explain why BCoV NTD does not bind CEACAM1 and why MHV NTD does not bind sugar. These results suggest a successful viral evolution strategy in which coronaviruses stole a galectin from hosts, incorporated it into their spike protein, and evolved it into viral receptor-binding domains with altered sugar specificity in contemporary BCoV or novel protein specificity in contemporary MHV.

Genomic analysis of 16 Colorado human NL63 coronaviruses identifies a new genotype, high sequence diversity in the N-terminal domain of the spike gene and evidence of recombination.

This study compared the complete genome sequences of 16 NL63 strain human coronaviruses (hCoVs) from respiratory specimens of paediatric patients with respiratory disease in Colorado, USA, and characterized the epidemiology and clinical characteristics associated with circulating NL63 viruses over a 3-year period. From 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011, 92 of 9380 respiratory specimens were found to be positive for NL63 RNA by PCR, an overall prevalence of 1 %. NL63 viruses were circulating during all 3 years, but there was considerable yearly variation in prevalence and the month of peak incidence. Phylogenetic analysis comparing the genome sequences of the 16 Colorado NL63 viruses with those of the prototypical hCoV-NL63 and three other NL63 viruses from the Netherlands demonstrated that there were three genotypes (A, B and C) circulating in Colorado from 2005 to 2010, and evidence of recombination between virus strains was found. Genotypes B and C co-circulated in Colorado in 2005, 2009 and 2010, but genotype A circulated only in 2005 when it was the predominant NL63 strain. Genotype C represents a new lineage that has not been described previously. The greatest variability in the NL63 virus genomes was found in the N-terminal domain (NTD) of the spike gene (nt 1-600, aa 1-200). Ten different amino acid sequences were found in the NTD of the spike protein among these NL63 strains and the 75 partial published sequences of NTDs from strains found at different times throughout the world.

Infection of human alveolar macrophages by human coronavirus strain 229E.

Human coronavirus strain 229E (HCoV-229E) commonly causes upper respiratory tract infections. However, lower respiratory tract infections can occur in some individuals, indicating that cells in the distal lung are susceptible to HCoV-229E. This study determined the virus susceptibility of primary cultures of human alveolar epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages (AMs). Fluorescent antibody staining indicated that HCoV-229E could readily infect AMs, but no evidence was found for infection in differentiated alveolar epithelial type II cells and only a very low level of infection in type II cells transitioning to the type I-like cell phenotype. However, a human bronchial epithelial cell line (16HBE) was readily infected. The innate immune response of AMs to HCoV-229E infection was evaluated for cytokine production and interferon (IFN) gene expression. AMs secreted significant amounts of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), regulated on activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES/CCL5) and macrophage inflammatory protein 1ß (MIP-1ß/CCL4) in response to HCoV-229E infection, but these cells exhibited no detectable increase in IFN-ß or interleukin-29 in mRNA levels. AMs from smokers had reduced secretion of TNF-α compared with non-smokers in response to HCoV-229E infection. Surfactant protein A (SP-A) and SP-D are part of the innate immune system in the distal lung. Both surfactant proteins bound to HCoV-229E, and pre-treatment of HCoV-229E with SP-A or SP-D inhibited infection of 16HBE cells. In contrast, there was a modest reduction in infection in AMs by SP-A, but not by SP-D. In summary, AMs are an important target for HCoV-229E, and they can mount a pro-inflammatory innate immune response to infection.

Role of mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) receptor murine CEACAM1 in the resistance of mice to MHV infection: studies of mice with chimeric mCEACAM1a and mCEACAM1b.

Although most inbred mouse strains are highly susceptible to mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) infection, the inbred SJL line of mice is highly resistant to its infection. The principal receptor for MHV is murine CEACAM1 (mCEACAM1). Susceptible strains of mice are homozygous for the 1a allele of mCeacam1, while SJL mice are homozygous for the 1b allele. mCEACAM1a (1a) has a 10- to 100-fold-higher receptor activity than does mCEACAM1b (1b). To explore the hypothesis that MHV susceptibility is due to the different MHV receptor activities of 1a and 1b, we established a chimeric C57BL/6 mouse (cB61ba) in which a part of the N-terminal immunoglobulin (Ig)-like domain of the mCeacam1a (1a) gene, which is responsible for MHV receptor function, is replaced by the corresponding region of mCeacam1b (1b). We compared the MHV susceptibility of these chimeric mice to that of SJL and B6 mice. B6 mice that are homozygous for 1a are highly susceptible to MHV-A59 infection, with a 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) of 10(2.5) PFU, while chimeric cB61ba mice and SJL mice homozygous for 1ba and 1b, respectively, survived following inoculation with 10(5) PFU. Unexpectedly, cB61ba mice were more resistant to MHV-A59 infection than SJL mice as measured by virus replication in target organs, including liver and brain. No infectious virus or viral RNA was detected in the organs of cB61ba mice, while viral RNA and infectious virus were detected in target organs of SJL mice. Furthermore, SJL mice produced antiviral antibodies after MHV-A59 inoculation with 10(5) PFU, but cB61ba mice did not. Thus, cB61ba mice are apparently completely resistant to MHV-A59 infection, while SJL mice permit low levels of MHV-A59 virus replication during self-limited, asymptomatic infection. When expressed on cultured BHK cells, the mCEACAM1b and mCEACAM1ba proteins had similar levels of MHV-A59 receptor activity. These results strongly support the hypothesis that although alleles of mCEACAM1 are the principal determinants of mouse susceptibility to MHV-A59, other as-yet-unidentified murine genes may also play a role in susceptibility to MHV.

Specific regulation of T helper cell 1-mediated murine colitis by CEACAM1.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-related cellular adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) is a cell surface molecule that has been proposed to negatively regulate T cell function. We have shown that CEACAM1 is associated with specific regulation of T helper cell (Th)1 pathways, T-bet-mediated Th1 cytokine signaling, and Th1-mediated immunopathology in vivo. Mice treated with anti-mouse CEACAM1-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) CC1 during the effector phase exhibited a reduced severity of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis in association with decreased interferon (IFN)-gamma production. Although oxazolone colitis has been reported as Th2 mediated, mice treated with the CC1 mAb or a CEACAM1-Fc chimeric protein exhibited a reduced severity of colitis in association with a significant reduction of IFN-gamma and T-bet activation, whereas signal transducer and activator of antigen 4 activation was unaffected. Both interleukin-4 and IFN-gamma gene-deficient mice exhibited less severe colitis induction by oxazolone. Direct ligation of T cells in vitro with the murine hepatitis virus spike protein, a natural ligand for the N-domain of CEACAM1, inhibited the differentiation of naive cells into Th1 but not Th2 cells and activation of Th1 but not Th2 cytokine production. These results indicate that CEACAM1 isoforms are a novel class of activation-induced cell surface molecules on T cells that function in the specific regulation of Th1-mediated inflammation such as that associated with inflammatory bowel disease.

Role of Ceacam1 in VEGF induced vasculogenesis of murine embryonic stem cell-derived embryoid bodies in 3D culture.

CEACAM1 (carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1), a type I transmembrane glycoprotein involved in cell-cell adhesion has been shown to act as an angiogenic factor for mouse and human endothelial cells. Based on the ability of CEACAM1 to initiate lumen formation in human mammary epithelial cells grown in 3D culture (Matrigel), we hypothesized that murine CEACAM1 may play a similar role in vasculogenesis. In order to test this hypothesis, murine embryonic stem (ES) cells stimulated with VEGF were differentiated into embryoid bodies (EB) for 8 days (-8-0 d) and transferred to Matrigel in the presence or absence of anti-CEACAM1 antibody for an additional 12 days (0-12 d). In the absence of anti-CEACAM1 antibody or in the presence of an isotype control antibody, the EB in Matrigel underwent extensive sprouting, generating lengthy vascular structures with well-defined lumina as demonstrated by confocal microscopy, electron microscopy, and immunohistochemical analysis. Both the length and architecture of the vascular tubes were inhibited by anti-CEACAM1 mAb CC1, a mAb that blocks the cell-cell adhesion functions of CEACAM1, thus demonstrating a critical role for this cell-cell adhesion molecule in generating and maintaining vasculogenesis. QRT-PCR analysis of the VEGF treated ES cells grown under conditions that convert them to EB revealed expression of Ceacam1 as early as -5 to -3 d reaching a maximum at day 0 at which time EBs were transferred to Matrigel, thereafter levels at first declined and then increased over time. Other markers of vasculogenesis including Pecam1, VE-Cad, and Tie-1 were not detected until day 0 when EBs were transferred to Matrigel followed by a steady increase in levels, indicating later roles in vasculogenesis. In contrast, Tie-2 and Flk-1 (VEGFR2) were detected on day five of EB formation reaching a maximum at day 0 on transfer to Matrigel, similar to Ceacam1, but after which Tie-2 declined over time, while Flk-1 increased over time. QRT-PCR analysis of the anti-CEACAM1 treated ES cells revealed a significant decrease in the expression of Ceacam1, Pecam1, Tie-1, and Flk-1, while VE-Cad and Tie-2 expression were unaffected. These results suggest that the expression and signaling of CEACAM1 may affect the expression of other factors known to play critical roles in vasculogenesis. Furthermore this 3D model of vasculogenesis in an environment of extracellular matrix may be a useful model for comparison to existing models of angiogenesis.

Rat respiratory coronavirus infection: replication in airway and alveolar epithelial cells and the innate immune response.

The rat coronavirus sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV) causes respiratory infection and provides a system for investigating respiratory coronaviruses in a natural host. A viral suspension in the form of a microspray aerosol was delivered by intratracheal instillation into the distal lung of 6-8-week-old Fischer 344 rats. SDAV inoculation produced a 7 % body weight loss over a 5 day period that was followed by recovery over the next 7 days. SDAV caused focal lesions in the lung, which were most severe on day 4 post-inoculation (p.i.). Immunofluorescent staining showed that four cell types supported SDAV virus replication in the lower respiratory tract, namely Clara cells, ciliated cells in the bronchial airway and alveolar type I and type II cells in the lung parenchyma. In bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) a neutrophil influx increased the population of neutrophils to 45 % compared with 6 % of the cells in control samples on day 2 after mock inoculation. Virus infection induced an increase in surfactant protein SP-D levels in BALF of infected rats on days 4 and 8 p.i. that subsided by day 12. The concentrations of chemokines MCP-1, LIX and CINC-1 in BALF increased on day 4 p.i., but returned to control levels by day 8. Intratracheal instillation of rats with SDAV coronavirus caused an acute, self-limited infection that is a useful model for studying the early events of the innate immune response to respiratory coronavirus infections in lungs of the natural virus host.

The spike glycoprotein of murine coronavirus MHV-JHM mediates receptor-independent infection and spread in the central nervous systems of Ceacam1a-/- Mice.

The MHV-JHM strain of the murine coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus is much more neurovirulent than the MHV-A59 strain, although both strains use murine CEACAM1a (mCEACAM1a) as the receptor to infect murine cells. We previously showed that Ceacam1a(-/-) mice are completely resistant to MHV-A59 infection (E. Hemmila et al., J. Virol. 78:10156-10165, 2004). In vitro, MHV-JHM, but not MHV-A59, can spread from infected murine cells to cells that lack mCEACAM1a, a phenomenon called receptor-independent spread. To determine whether MHV-JHM could infect and spread in the brain independent of mCEACAM1a, we inoculated Ceacam1a(-/-) mice. Although Ceacam1a(-/-) mice were completely resistant to i.c. inoculation with 10(6) PFU of recombinant wild-type MHV-A59 (RA59) virus, these mice were killed by recombinant MHV-JHM (RJHM) and a chimeric virus containing the spike of MHV-JHM in the MHV-A59 genome (SJHM/RA59). Immunohistochemistry showed that RJHM and SJHM/RA59 infected all neural cell types and induced severe microgliosis in both Ceacam1a(-/-) and wild-type mice. For RJHM, the 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) is <10(1.3) in wild-type mice and 10(3.1) in Ceacam1a(-/-) mice. For SJHM/RA59, the LD(50) is <10(1.3) in wild-type mice and 10(3.6) in Ceacam1a(-/-) mice. This study shows that infection and spread of MHV-JHM in the brain are dependent upon the viral spike glycoprotein. RJHM can initiate infection in the brains of Ceacam1a(-/-) mice, but expression of mCEACAM1a increases susceptibility to infection. The spread of infection in the brain is mCEACAM1a independent. Thus, the ability of the MHV-JHM spike to mediate mCEACAM1a-independent spread in the brain is likely an important factor in the severe neurovirulence of MHV-JHM in wild-type mice.

Aromatic amino acids in the juxtamembrane domain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus spike glycoprotein are important for receptor-dependent virus entry and cell-cell fusion.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) spike glycoprotein (S) is a class I viral fusion protein that binds to its receptor glycoprotein, human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), and mediates virus entry and cell-cell fusion. The juxtamembrane domain (JMD) of S is an aromatic amino acid-rich region proximal to the transmembrane domain that is highly conserved in all coronaviruses. Alanine substitutions for one or two of the six aromatic residues in the JMD did not alter the surface expression of the SARS-CoV S proteins with a deletion of the C-terminal 19 amino acids (S Delta19) or reduce binding to soluble human ACE2 (hACE2). However, hACE2-dependent entry of trypsin-treated retrovirus pseudotyped viruses expressing JMD mutant S Delta19 proteins was greatly reduced. Single alanine substitutions for aromatic residues reduced entry to 10 to 60% of the wild-type level. The greatest reduction was caused by residues nearest the transmembrane domain. Four double alanine substitutions reduced entry to 5 to 10% of the wild-type level. Rapid hACE2-dependent S-mediated cell-cell fusion was reduced to 60 to 70% of the wild-type level for all single alanine substitutions and the Y1188A/Y1191A protein. S Delta19 proteins with other double alanine substitutions reduced cell-cell fusion further, from 40% to less than 20% of wild-type levels. The aromatic amino acids in the JMD of the SARS-CoV S glycoprotein play critical roles in receptor-dependent virus-cell and cell-cell fusion. Because the JMD is so highly conserved in all coronavirus S proteins, it is a potential target for development of drugs that may inhibit virus entry and/or cell-cell fusion mediated by S proteins of all coronaviruses.

Detection of four human coronaviruses in respiratory infections in children: a one-year study in Colorado.

Lower respiratory tract infections are the leading cause of death in children worldwide. Studies on the epidemiology and clinical associations of the four human non-SARS human coronaviruses (HCoVs) using sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays are needed to evaluate the clinical significance of HCoV infections worldwide. Pediatric respiratory specimens (1,683) submitted to a diagnostic virology laboratory over a 1-year period (December 2004-November 2005) that were negative for seven respiratory viruses by conventional methods were tested for RNA of four HCoVs using sensitive RT-PCR assays. Coronavirus RNAs were detected in 84 (5.0%) specimens: HCoV-NL63 in 37 specimens, HCoV-OC43 in 34, HCoV-229E in 11, and HCoV-HKU1 in 2. The majority of HCoV infections occurred during winter months, and over 62% were in previously healthy children. Twenty-six (41%) coronavirus positive patients had evidence of a lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI), 17 (26%) presented with vomiting and/or diarrhea, and 5 (8%) presented with meningoencephalitis or seizures. Respiratory specimens from one immunocompromised patient were persistently positive for HCoV-229E RNA for 3 months. HCoV-NL63-positive patients were nearly twice as likely to be hospitalized (P = 0.02) and to have a LRTI (P = 0.04) than HCoV-OC43-positive patients. HCoVs are associated with a small, but significant number (at least 2.4% of total samples submitted), of both upper and lower respiratory tract illnesses in children in Colorado. Our data raise the possibility that HCoV may play a role in gastrointestinal and CNS disease. Additional studies are needed to investigate the potential roles of HCoVs in these diseases.

CD13 is a novel mediator of monocytic/endothelial cell adhesion.

During inflammation, cell surface adhesion molecules guide the adhesion and migration of circulating leukocytes across the endothelial cells lining the blood vessels to access the site of injury. The transmembrane molecule CD13 is expressed on monocytes and endothelial cells and has been shown to mediate homotypic cell adhesion, which may imply a role for CD13 in inflammatory monocyte trafficking. Here, we show that ligation and clustering of CD13 by mAb or viral ligands potently induce myeloid cell/endothelial adhesion in a signal transduction-dependent manner involving monocytic cytoskeletal rearrangement and filopodia formation. Treatment with soluble recombinant (r)CD13 blocks this CD13-dependent adhesion, and CD13 molecules from monocytic and endothelial cells are present in the same immunocomplex, suggesting a direct participation of CD13 in the adhesive interaction. This concept is strengthened by the fact that activated monocytic cells adhere to immobilized recombinant CD13. Furthermore, treatment with anti-CD13 antibodies in a murine model of peritonitis results in a decrease in leukocyte infiltration into the peritoneum, suggesting a potential role for CD13 in leukocyte trafficking in vivo. Therefore, this work supports a new direction for CD13 biology, where these cell surface molecules act as true molecular interfaces that induce and participate in critical inflammatory cell interactions.