Religion and Suicide in Black Emerging Adults: Examining Pathways Through Hope and Meaning in Life.

While suicide persists as a leading cause of death for Black emerging adults in the U.S., few studies identify specific positive psychological mechanisms that can be leveraged to reduce future risk. The current study, therefore, explores whether religion is related to suicidal ideation via hope and meaning in life among a sample of n = 375 Black emerging adults ages 18-25-years-old (M = 20.79, SD = 2.22). Structural equation modeling techniques were used to measure direct and indirect associations. Primary results indicate that non-organizational religiosity (e.g., reading religious texts, listening to religious music, prayer) was positively associated with hope, presence of meaning in life, and search for meaning in life. Presence of meaning in life was the strongest contributor to decreased suicidal ideation. Further, non-organizational religiosity was indirectly associated with less suicidal ideation via hope and presence of meaning in life. Personal forms of religious involvement, and not service attendance, appear to be the most salient aspects of religion to consider when exploring pathways between religion and suicidality during this particular developmental stage.

Pathways from racial discrimination to cortisol/DHEA imbalance: protective role of religious involvement.

Objective: Racial discrimination (RD) is hypothesized to dysregulate the production of stress reactive hormones among African Americans. Psychological processes that may mediate the association between RD and such dysregulation (e.g. cortisol/DHEA ratio) are not well articulated. Organizational religious involvement (ORI) has been discussed as a psychological protective factor within the context of RD, but our understanding of ORI as a physiological protective factor remains limited. We evaluated whether RD was directly and indirectly (through depressive symptoms) associated with an imbalance of cortisol and DHEA hormones, and whether ORI buffered these direct and/or indirect pathways.Design: Data were drawn from the Flint Adolescent Study, an ongoing interview study of youth that began in 1994. Participants were 188 African American emerging adults (47.3% Female, ages 20-22). We used mediation and moderated-mediation analyses, as outlined by Hayes [2012. PROCESS SPSS Macro. [Computer Software and Manual]. http://www.afhayes.com/public/process.pdf], to evaluate the study aims.Results: We found that depressive symptoms mediated the association between RD and the cortisol/DHEA ratio. We also found that depressive symptoms mediated the association between RD and the cortisol/DHEA ratio for individuals reporting low and moderate levels of ORI, but not at high levels.Conclusions: Our findings support the socio-psychobiological model of racism and health [Chae et al. 2011. "Conceptualizing Racial Disparities in Health: Advancement of a Socio-Psychobiological Approach." Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 8 (1): 63-77. doi:10.1017/S1742058X11000166] and suggest that the psychological toll of RD can confer physiological consequences. Moreover, ORI may disrupt pathways from RD to cortisol/DHEA ratio by buffering the psychological toll of RD.

A very present help: The role of religious support for Black adolescent girls' mental well-being.

This study explored religious emotional support as a mediator of the association between organized religious involvement (ORI) and mental well-being among African American and Caribbean Black girls. Data are drawn from a nationally representative survey of Black adolescents. The sample was composed of African American (n = 412) and Caribbean Black (n = 165) girls, aged 13-17. Structural equation modeling tested direct and indirect effects of ORI on mental well-being, through religious emotional support. For African American girls, ORI was not directly related to any of the mental well-being outcomes. Religious emotional support mediated the association between ORI and self-esteem, mastery, and life satisfaction. For Caribbean Black girls, ORI was negatively associated with mastery and life satisfaction. Religious emotional support mediated the association between ORI and life satisfaction. Results suggest that the well-being benefits of ORI for Black girls only remain significant in the presence of religious emotional support and are different for ethnic subgroups.

Psychological pathway from racial discrimination to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption: Religious coping as a protective factor.

While racial discrimination (RD) is associated with increased alcohol-related problems among African Americans (AAs), researchers have not examined how RD contributes to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption over time. In addition, the protective role of religious coping has been discussed but not formally tested in pathways connecting RD to the physical consequences of alcohol consumption. To address this gap, we estimated latent growth mediation models in a sample of 465 AA emerging adults. We found that RD increased physical consequences of alcohol consumption over time through psychological distress. After identifying two profiles of religious coping (i.e., low and high religious coping), RD indirectly influenced the physical consequences of alcohol consumption through psychological distress among AAs in the low religious coping group. Our results signal the importance of developing alcohol-misuse prevention programs that address the psychological consequences of RD. Integrating culturally tailored coping strategies (e.g., religious coping) may bolster the efficacy of these prevention programs.

Black Caribbean Emerging Adults: A Systematic Review of Religion and Health.

Religion, a prominent factor among Black diasporic communities, influences their health outcomes. Given the increase in Black Caribbeans living in the United States, it is important to understand how religion's function among different ethnic groups of Black Americans. We systematically reviewed four databases and included articles of any study design if they (a) focused on the religious experiences of emerging adults (18-29 years) identifying as Black Caribbean in the United States, in light of medical, public health, or mental health outcomes, and (b) were published before November 30, 2018. Study results contribute to future studies' conceptualization and measurement of religion among Black Caribbean emerging adults.

Violence Exposure and Sexual Risk Behaviors for African American Adolescent Girls: The Protective Role of Natural Mentorship and Organizational Religious Involvement.

African American adolescent girls are at increased risk of being exposed to community violence and being diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection. Fewer studies, however, have examined the protective roles of natural mentorship and organizational religious involvement as potential moderators that could lessen the effects of violence exposure on health risk behavior. Data from 273 African American ninth grade girls were used to test hypothesized independent and moderated-moderation models. Results suggest that natural mentorship and religious involvement were protective for girls who reported at least one mentor and moderate to high levels of religious involvement. Our findings may be relevant for community stakeholders and organizations that directly interact with religious institutions and community programs that focus on outreach to African American adolescent girls.

Church support networks of African Americans: The impact of gender and religious involvement.

We examined the sociodemographic and religious involvement correlates of church support networks in a nationally representative sample of African Americans across the adult life span. Data from the National Survey of American Life was used for analysis. Ordinary least squares regression was conducted to identify correlates of frequency of contact, subjective closeness, provision and receipt of overall support, receipt of emotional support, and negative interactions with church members. We also investigated differences in church support networks separately for men and women. Religious involvement was positively associated with church support network indicators (i.e., frequency of contact). Church support network indicators also varied by age, gender, education, family income, marital status, and region. The findings indicate that for many African Americans, church members are an integral component of their support networks and underscore the importance of social integration in church networks for social support exchanges. Moreover, these church support network characteristics are patterned by sociodemographic characteristics.

What's your religious coping profile? Differences in religious orientation and subjective sleep among religious coping groups in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: To determine various profiles/subgroups of religious copers based on indices of positive and negative religious coping; and to determine whether religious copers differ in their religious orientations, subjective sleep characteristics, and strategies used to cope with sleep problems. METHOD: Six hundred and ninety-five adults (77.3% female, 70.4% White) in the United States completed a 20-minute online questionnaire in January 2020. RESULTS: Results of a latent profile analysis, based on 8 indicators of positive and negative religious coping, indicated a 5-class solution: (i) "Absent" (n = 101, 14.5%); (ii) "Anxious" (n = 122, 17.6%); (iii) "Ambivalent" (n = 101, 14.5%); (iv) "Secure" (n = 200, 28.8%); and (v) "Conflicted" copers (n = 171, 24.6%). Results of MANOVA tests indicated that Secure copers reported the least religious doubt and highest religious-based social support. Conflicted and Anxious copers had the worst sleep quality, while Secure, Ambivalent, and Absent copers had healthier sleep profiles. In terms of strategies used to cope with sleep problems, Secure and Conflicted copers reported the greatest use of prayer and meditation, while the use of technology was most prevalent among Conflicted and Anxious copers. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals differ in their combined use of positive and negative religious coping, which is related to differences in their religious orientation, sleep characteristics, and strategies used to cope with sleep problems. Religious leaders should be mindful of the diverse ways in which religious coping strategies are harnessed to effectively cater to the unique religious and sleep needs of their members.

Correlates of Spirituality among African American and Black Caribbean Emerging Adults.

Spirituality is a significant cultural strength and resource for Black emerging adults. Numerous studies show that increasing numbers of emerging adults tend to identify themselves as being spiritual but not religious. However, no studies to date have identified the demographic correlates of spirituality for Black emerging adults from different ethnic groups (i.e., African American vs. Black Caribbean). Data from the National Survey of American Life was used to identify the demographic correlates of 2 indicators of spirituality (e.g., self-rated spirituality and subjective spirituality) for 802 African American and 428 Black Caribbean emerging adults using linear regression. For African Americans, being a woman predicted both greater self-rated spirituality and subjective spirituality. However, among Black Caribbeans men rated spirituality higher in importance than women. African Americans who reported higher educational attainment tended to report higher levels of self-rated spirituality and subjective spirituality. Romantic status for Black Caribbeans, whether they had no romantic involvement or a current romantic partner, was associated with lower self-ratings of spirituality. Unmarried cohabitating individuals in both ethnic groups tended to report lower levels of self-related spirituality. Unemployment for Black Caribbeans was associated with lower subjective spirituality. Findings are of interest to those who serve and work with Black emerging adults.

"So, Do Not Fear": Religion and the prevalence, persistence, and severity of anxiety disorders among Black Americans.

BACKGROUND: There is a dearth of scholarship that explicates the effects of religious participation on anxiety disorders among Black Americans. A better understanding of the links between religious participation, a coping resource, and anxiety disorders among Black Americans remains essential, given Black Americans are less likely than their white counterparts to seek professional treatment for mental health problems, leading to greater unmet mental health needs. The aim of this study was to investigate whether religious participation is associated with the prevalence, persistence, and severity of anxiety disorders among Black adults. METHODS: We used a national sample of Black adults (N = 4999) from the National Survey of American Life, a cross-sectional study conducted from 2001 to 2003. Five anxiety disorders were assessed: posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and agoraphobia. Three dimensions of religious participation were assessed: organizational, non-organizational, and subjective religious participation. Weighted logistic and linear regressions were estimated to examine the associations between religious participation and anxiety disorders. RESULTS: Findings indicate that organizational religious participation and subjective religiosity were associated with lower odds of anxiety disorders and decreased severity. Findings for non-organizational religious participation in relation to the prevalence, persistence, and severity of anxiety disorders were mixed. LIMITATIONS: The study limitations include the utilization of self-reported measures, cross-sectional study design, and age of the data set. CONCLUSIONS: Different dimensions of religious participation have differing effects on anxiety disorders. Religious participation may be an important resource for Black Americans in coping and preventing anxiety disorders.

The role of pubertal timing and temperamental vulnerability in adolescents' internalizing symptoms.

This longitudinal study examined the joint role of pubertal timing and temperament variables (emotional reactivity and self-regulation) in predicting adolescents' internalizing symptoms. The multiethnic sample included 1,025 adolescent girls and boys followed from age 11 to age 15 (M age = 11.03 years at Time 1). In structural equation models, age 11 measures of pubertal timing, emotional reactivity, and self-regulation and their interactions were used to predict adolescents' internalizing behavior concurrently and at age 15. Results indicated that, among girls, early pubertal timing, higher emotional reactivity, and lower self-regulation predicted increased internalizing behavior. In addition, self-regulation moderated the effect of pubertal timing such that effects of earlier timing on subsequent internalizing were seen primarily among girls with relatively poor self-regulation. Among boys, higher levels of emotional reactivity and lower self-regulation predicted increased internalizing, but there were no effects of pubertal timing. After controlling for Time 1 internalizing symptoms, only self-regulation predicted change in internalizing symptoms. Discussion focuses on the possible interplay of temperament and pubertal development in predicting internalizing problems during adolescence.

Intersections of Racial/Ethnic and Religious Identities on Bodily Well-Being for Black College-Attending Emerging Adults.

Black undergraduates face threats to healthy weight and body image (i.e., bodily well-being). Having a strong racial/ethnic identity can promote health during emerging adulthood. However, less is known about the intersections of racial/ethnic and religious identities on the bodily well-being of Black college-attending emerging adults, despite evidence to indicate that aspects of religiosity are also associated with health. We use quantitative data from 767 Black college-attending emerging adults in the Multi-University Study of Identity and Culture to examine the independent contributions of racial/ethnic and religious identity for bodily health, and test a potential interaction between racial/ethnic and religious identity on bodily health outcomes. Results from a multivariate linear regression model indicate that Black college-attending emerging adults with both high religious identity and high racial/ethnic identity exploration had higher body mass index and less positive body image. Findings suggest ways to strengthen the development of culturally appropriate public health prevention and intervention efforts that target body image and weight for Black college-attending emerging adults. IMPACT STATEMENT: Black college-attending emerging adults face challenges to their health, particularly threats to healthy weight and body image during this period of psychosocial transitions. The developmental process of navigating racial/ethnic and religious identities during this time raises challenges and opportunities for health promotion for this population. Yet, research that explores the role of these identities remains scarce. We found that Black college-attending emerging adults had higher body mass index and more negative body image when they reported more racial/ethnic identity exploration coupled with higher religious identities. Results shed light on the complex ways that navigating both racial/ethnic and religious identities may put some Black college-attending emerging adults at greater health risk. Health education and promotion practice focused on improving Black emerging adult health in college contexts should ensure that behavioral interventions are appropriately nuanced and situated in these populations' developmental and cultural considerations.

Racial Discrimination and Trajectories of Problematic Alcohol Use Among African American Emerging Adults: The Role of Organizational Religious Involvement.

Racial discrimination jeopardizes a wide range of health behaviors for African Americans. Numerous studies demonstrate significant negative associations between racial discrimination and problematic alcohol use among African Americans. Culturally specific contexts (e.g., organized religious involvement) often function protectively against racial discrimination's adverse effects for many African Americans. Yet organized religious involvement may affect the degree to which racial discrimination increases problematic alcohol use resulting in various alcohol use trajectories. These links remain understudied in emerging adulthood marked by when individuals transition from adolescence to early adult roles and responsibilities. We use data from 496 African American emerging adults from the Flint Adolescent Study (FAS) to (a) identify multiple and distinct alcohol use trajectories and (b) examine organizational religious involvement's protective role. Three trajectory classes were identified: the high/stable, (20.76% of sample; n = 103); moderate/stable, (39.52% of sample; n = 196); and low/rising, (39.72% of the sample; n = 197). After controlling for sex, educational attainment, and general stress, the interaction between racial discrimination and organized religious involvement did not influence the likelihood of classifying into the moderate/stable class or the low/rising class, compared with the high/stable class. These results suggest organized religious involvement counteracts, but does not buffer racial discrimination's effects on problematic alcohol use. Findings emphasize the critical need for culturally sensitive prevention efforts incorporating organized religious involvement for African American emerging adults exposed to racial discrimination. These prevention efforts may lessen the role of racial discrimination on health disparities related to alcohol use.

Racial discrimination trajectories predicting psychological well-being: From emerging adulthood to adulthood.

Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) has been documented as a risk factor for worse psychological well-being among African Americans. Yet, most researchers have not examined how trajectories of PRD during emerging adulthood shape psychological well-being in adulthood. Moreover, less is known about whether demographic factors and components of racial identity shape PRD over time. We identified trajectories of PRD among 605 African American emerging adults and examined whether PRD trajectories were associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and perceived lack of control in adulthood. Four trajectories of PRD were identified (i.e., high-stable, moderate-declining, low-rising, and low-stable), and demographic factors and racial identity indicators influenced the likelihood of trajectory classification. In addition, members of the moderate-declining trajectory exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and perceived lack of control than members in the low-stable trajectory. Our findings suggest that changes in PRD in emerging adulthood can extend our understanding of psychological well-being in adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Disrupting the Behavioral Health Consequences of Racial Discrimination: A Longitudinal Investigation of Racial Identity Profiles and Alcohol-Related Problems.

Researchers have documented the negative associations between racial discrimination and alcohol use for young Black people, yet fewer researchers have examined these associations longitudinally and with racial identity as a protective factor. We use data from the Flint Adolescent Study (465 Black/African Americans) to investigate the relationship between discrimination and alcohol-related problems over time, and how that relationship differs with varying trajectories of racial identity (i.e., private and public regard). Among those reporting persistently moderate levels of private regard and high levels of public regard in late adolescence through emerging adulthood, increases in racial discrimination were associated with increases in alcohol-related problems over time. Findings suggest that regard for one's racial group may function protectively in the health strategies employed in response to discriminatory events. More longitudinal research is needed to delineate how varying racial pride operates with regard to long-term discrimination and behavioral health.

Religious Social Support, Discrimination, and Psychiatric Disorders among Black Adolescents.

Discrimination is a common experience for Black youth that can jeopardize their mental health. However, research suggests that various dimensions of religion have positive effects on youths' mental health and well-being. Additionally, exposure to discrimination may vary by youths' socio-demographic factors, such as gender and ethnicity. Numerous studies identify the protective effects of emotional and tangible religious social support on the mental health of Black adults reporting discrimination. Conversely, fewer studies address the influence of emotional and tangible religious social support on mental health for Black adolescents experiencing discrimination, while also accounting for socio-demographic heterogeneity among Black adolescents. Historically, religion has played an instrumental role in the diverse narratives of the Black Diaspora in the United States. It is important to account for its potential protective effects for Black youth. Examining these factors using a compensatory risk and resilience model, our study finds that Black adolescents who experience discrimination are also more likely to meet criteria for a psychiatric disorder. Additionally, those who report experiencing religious social support are less likely to meet criteria for a psychiatric disorder. These findings were not moderated by the sociodemographic factors of race or ethnicity. To date, this investigation is one of the first to examine the effect of different types of religious social support in the presence of discrimination on psychiatric illness among African American and Caribbean Black adolescents.