The NIH pediatric/young adult chordoma clinic and natural history study: Making advances in a very rare tumor.

BACKGROUND: Chordomas are rare tumors arising from the skull base and spine, with approximately 20 pediatric chordoma cases in the Unitedn States per year. The natural history and optimal treatment of pediatric chordomas, especially poorly differentiated and dedifferentiated subtypes, is incompletely understood. Herein, we present findings from our first National Cancer Institute (NCI) chordoma clinic and a retrospective analysis of published cases of pediatric poorly differentiated chordomas (PDC) and dedifferentiated chordomas (DC). METHODS: Patients less than 40 years old with chordoma were enrolled on the NCI Natural History and Biospecimens Acquisitions Study for Children and Adults with Rare Solid Tumors protocol (NCT03739827). Chordoma experts reviewed patient records, evaluated patients, and provided treatment recommendations. Patient-reported outcomes, biospecimens, and volumetric tumor analyses were collected. A literature review for pediatric PDC and DC was conducted. RESULTS: Twelve patients (median age: 14 years) attended the clinic, including four patients with active disease and three patients with PDC responsive to systemic therapy. Consensus treatment, management, and recommendations were provided to patients. Literature review returned 45 pediatric cases of PDC or DC with variable treatments and outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: A multidisciplinary expert clinic was feasible and successful in improving understanding of pediatric chordoma. While multimodal approaches have all been employed, treatment for PDC has been inconsistent and a recommended standardized treatment approach has not been defined. Centralized efforts, inclusive of specialized chordoma-focused clinics, natural history studies, and prospective analyses will help in the standardization of care for this challenging disease.

Update on the Treatment of Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma in Patients with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2.

Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma (MTC) is a rare neuroendocrine cancer that accounts for 1-2% of thyroid cancers in the United States (U.S.). While most cases are sporadic, 25% of MTC cases are hereditary. These hereditary cases occur in the setting of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2A (MEN2A) or 2B (MEN2B) driven by mutations in the Rearranged during Transfection RET proto-oncogene. This article discusses hereditary MTC in the setting of MEN2 and the treatment options available for it. The first line treatment for this disease is typically a total thyroidectomy and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Two tyrosine kinase inhibitors, vandetanib and cabozantinib, have been approved for treatment of advanced MTC, but options beyond those are limited. However, several promising treatments are being studied, which are discussed in this review.

Emerging Treatments for Advanced/Metastatic Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma.

OPINION STATEMENT: The incidence of metastatic pheochromocytoma (PHEO) and paraganglioma (PGL) may occur in as many as 35% of patients particularly with PGL and even more frequently in those with specific mutations. Biochemical, morphological, and molecular markers have been investigated for use in the distinction of benign from malignant PHEO/PGL. PHEO/PGL metastasizes via hematogenous or lymphatic routes and shows differences based on mutational status. The most common sites of involvement in patients that have an SDHB mutation are the bone (78%), lungs (45%), lymph nodes (36%), and liver (35%). In patients with sporadic PHEO/PGL, the most common sites of metastasis are the bones (64%), lungs (47%), lymph nodes (36%), and liver (32%). Metastases may be present at presentation or may occur later. Metastases to the liver and lungs are associated with a shorter survival. Overall, the estimated 5-year survival rates are between 34 and 74%. Currently, treatments for metastatic PHEO/PGL are essentially palliative. Surgery is potentially curative; however, tumor dissemination limits the chance for a curative resection. When surgical intervention is not amenable, the therapeutic options include radiolabeled MIBG (Azedra®-iobenguane 131 was recently FDA-approved for patients > 12 years and older with iobenguane scan positive) or systemic chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and dacarbazine (CVD) with an overall objective response rate (ORR) of less than 40%; however, it is not clear if the administration of CVD impacts overall survival, as nearly all patients develop progressive and ultimately fatal disease. Other treatment modalities under investigation include cytoreductive techniques, novel radiopharmaceuticals, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and experimental therapies. Here we are discussing emerging treatment for advanced/metastatic PHEO/PGL.

Pediatric adrenocortical carcinoma.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare endocrine malignancy of the adrenal gland with an unfavorable prognosis. It is rare in the pediatric population, with an incidence of 0.2-0.3 patients per million in patients under 20 years old. It is primarily associated with Li-Fraumeni and Beckwith-Wiedemann tumor predisposition syndromes in children. The incidence of pediatric ACC is 10-15fold higher in southern Brazil due to a higher prevalence of TP53 mutation associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome in that population. Current treatment protocols are derived from adult ACC and consist of surgery and/or chemotherapy with etoposide, doxorubicin, and cisplatin (EDP) with mitotane. Limited research has been reported on other treatment modalities for pediatric ACC, including mitotane, pembrolizumab, cabozantinib, and chimeric antigen receptor autologous cell (CAR-T) therapy.

Tumor Doubling Time Using CT Volumetric Segmentation in Metastatic Adrenocortical Carcinoma.

Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare malignancy with an overall unfavorable prognosis. Clinicians treating patients with ACC have noted accelerated growth in metastatic liver lesions that requires rapid intervention compared to other metastatic locations. This study measured and compared the growth rates of metastatic ACC lesions in the lungs, liver, and lymph nodes using volumetric segmentation. A total of 12 patients with metastatic ACC (six male; six female) were selected based on their medical history. Computer tomography (CT) exams were retrospectively reviewed and a sampling of ≤5 metastatic lesions per organ were selected for evaluation. Lesions in the liver, lung, and lymph nodes were measured and evaluated by volumetric segmentation. Statistical analyses were performed to compare the volumetric growth rates of the lesions in each organ system. In this cohort, 5/12 had liver lesions, 7/12 had lung lesions, and 5/12 had lymph node lesions. A total of 92 lesions were evaluated and segmented for lesion volumetry. The volume doubling time per organ system was 27 days in the liver, 90 days in the lungs, and 95 days in the lymph nodes. In this series of 12 patients with metastatic ACC, liver lesions showed a faster growth rate than lung or lymph node lesions.

Pulmonary Function in Patients With Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia 2B.

CONTEXT: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B (MEN2B) is a rare cancer predisposition syndrome resulting from an autosomal-dominant germline mutation of the RET proto-oncogene. No prior studies have investigated pulmonary function in patients with MEN2B. OBJECTIVE: This study characterized the pulmonary function of patients with MEN2B. DESIGN: This is a retrospective analysis of pulmonary function tests (PFTs) and chest imaging of patients enrolled in the Natural History Study of Children and Adults with MEN2A or MEN2B at the National Institutes of Health. RESULTS: Thirty-six patients with MEN2B (18 males, 18 females) were selected based on the availability of PFTs; 27 patients underwent at least 2 PFTs and imaging studies. Diffusion abnormalities were observed in 94% (33/35) of the patients, with 63% (22/35) having moderate to severe defects. A declining trend in diffusion capacity was seen over time, with an estimated slope of -2.9% per year (P = 0.0001). Restrictive and obstructive abnormalities were observed in 57% (20/35) and 39% (14/36), respectively. Computed tomography imaging revealed pulmonary thin-walled cavities (lung cysts) in 28% (9/32) of patients and metastatic lung disease in 34% (11/32) of patients; patients with metastatic lung lesions also tended to have thin-walled cavities (P = 0.035). CONCLUSIONS: This study characterized pulmonary function within a MEN2B cohort. Diffusion, restrictive, and obstructive abnormalities were evident, and lung cysts were present in 28% of patients. Further research is required to determine the mechanism of the atypical pulmonary features observed in this cohort.