Systematic mutational analysis of the LytTR DNA binding domain of Staphylococcus aureus virulence gene transcription factor AgrA.

Most DNA-binding bacterial transcription factors contact DNA through a recognition α-helix in their DNA-binding domains. An emerging class of DNA-binding transcription factors, predominantly found in pathogenic bacteria interact with the DNA via a relatively novel type of DNA-binding domain, called the LytTR domain, which mainly comprises ß strands. Even though the crystal structure of the LytTR domain of the virulence gene transcription factor AgrA from Staphylococcus aureus bound to its cognate DNA sequence is available, the contribution of specific amino acid residues in the LytTR domain of AgrA to transcription activation remains elusive. Here, for the first time, we have systematically investigated the role of amino acid residues in transcription activation in a LytTR domain-containing transcription factor. Our analysis, which involves in vivo and in vitro analyses and molecular dynamics simulations of S. aureus AgrA identifies a highly conserved tyrosine residue, Y229, as a major amino acid determinant for maximal activation of transcription by AgrA and provides novel insights into structure-function relationships in S. aureus AgrA.

The Agr quorum-sensing system regulates fibronectin binding but not hemolysis in the absence of a functional electron transport chain.

Staphylococcus aureus is responsible for numerous chronic and recurrent infections, which are frequently associated with the emergence of small-colony variants (SCVs) that lack a functional electron transport chain. SCVs exhibit enhanced expression of fibronectin-binding protein (FnBP) and greatly reduced hemolysin production, although the basis for this is unclear. One hypothesis is that these phenotypes are a consequence of the reduced Agr activity of SCVs, while an alternative is that the lack of a functional electron transport chain and the resulting reduction in ATP production are responsible. Disruption of the electron transport chain of S. aureus genetically (hemB and menD) or chemically, using 2-n-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline N-oxide (HQNO), inhibited both growth and Agr activity and conferred an SCV phenotype. Supplementation of the culture medium with synthetic autoinducing peptide (sAIP) significantly increased Agr expression in both hemB mutant strains and S. aureus grown with HQNO and significantly reduced staphylococcal adhesion to fibronectin. However, sAIP did not promote hemolysin expression in hemB mutant strains or S. aureus grown with HQNO. Therefore, while Agr regulates fibronectin binding in SCVs, it cannot promote hemolysin production in the absence of a functional electron transport chain.

Transcriptional downregulation of agr expression in Staphylococcus aureus during growth in human serum can be overcome by constitutively active mutant forms of the sensor kinase AgrC.

The temporal and cell density-dependent regulation of expression of virtually all the Staphylococcus aureus virulon is under the control of the agr (accessory gene regulatory) operon. The expression of the agr operon is subject to transcriptional regulation by the AgrA/C two-component response regulator/sensor kinase pair. During bacteraemia, a frequent syndrome caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), the transcriptional downregulation of agr expression has been attributed to the sequestration of the quorum-signalling molecule auto-inducing peptide (AIP) by the human serum component apolipoprotein B as part of an innate immune response to infection. However, it is not known whether transcriptional downregulation of agr expression during growth in human serum is additionally subjected to regulation by transcription regulatory proteins that either directly or indirectly affect transcription from the agr operon promoters. Here, using chromosomal fluorescence reporters of agr expression in S. aureus, we show that the transcriptional downregulation of agr expression in human serum can be overcome using constitutive active mutant forms of AgrC. Therefore, it seems that the sequestration of the AIP is likely to be the only mechanism by which the host innate immune response limits agr expression at the transcriptional level to maintain the host-pathogen balance towards a noninvasive outcome.

Regulation of the co-evolved HrpR and HrpS AAA+ proteins required for Pseudomonas syringae pathogenicity.

The bacterial AAA+ enhancer-binding proteins (EBPs) HrpR and HrpS (HrpRS) of Pseudomonas syringae (Ps) activate σ(54)-dependent transcription at the hrpL promoter; triggering type-three secretion system-mediated pathogenicity. In contrast with singly acting EBPs, the evolution of the strictly co-operative HrpRS pair raises questions of potential benefits and mechanistic differences this transcription control system offers. Here, we show distinct properties of HrpR and HrpS variants, indicating functional specialization of these non-redundant, tandemly arranged paralogues. Activities of HrpR, HrpS and their control proteins HrpV and HrpG from Ps pv. tomato DC3000 in vitro establish that HrpRS forms a transcriptionally active hetero-hexamer, that there is a direct negative regulatory role for HrpV through specific binding to HrpS and that HrpG suppresses HrpV. The distinct HrpR and HrpS functionalities suggest how partial paralogue degeneration has potentially led to a novel control mechanism for EBPs and indicate subunit-specific roles for EBPs in σ(54)-RNA polymerase activation.