Primary alterations during the development of hidradenitis suppurativa.

BACKGROUND: Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the apocrine gland-rich (AGR) skin region. The initial steps of disease development are not fully understood, despite intense investigations into immune alterations in lesional HS skin. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to systematically investigate the inflammatory molecules involved in three stages of HS pathogenesis, including healthy AGR, non-lesional HS and lesional HS skin, with the parallel application of multiple mRNA and protein-based methods. METHODS: Immune cell counts (T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages), Th1/Th17-related molecules (IL-12B, TBX21, IFNG, TNFA, IL-17, IL10, IL-23A, TGFB1, RORC, CCL20), keratinocyte-related sensors (TLR2,4), mediators (S100A7, S100A8, S100A9, DEFB4B, LCN2, CAMP, CCL2) and pro-inflammatory molecules (IL1B, IL6, TNFA, IL-23A) were investigated in the three groups by RNASeq, RT-qPCR, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. RESULTS: Epidermal changes were already detectable in non-lesional HS skin; the epidermal occurrence of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), IL-1ß, TNF-α and IL-23 was highly upregulated compared with healthy AGR skin. In lesional HS epidermis, TNF-α and IL-1ß expression remained at high levels while AMPs and IL-23 increased even more compared with non-lesional skin. In the dermis of non-lesional HS skin, signs of inflammation were barely detectable (vs. AGR), while in the lesional dermis, the number of inflammatory cells and Th1/Th17-related mediators were significantly elevated. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings that non-lesional HS epidermal keratinocytes produce not only AMPs and IL-1ß but also high levels of TNF-α and IL-23 confirm the driver role of keratinocytes in HS pathogenesis and highlight the possible role of keratinocytes in the transformation of non-inflammatory Th17 cells (of healthy AGR skin) into inflammatory cells (of HS) via the production of these mediators. The fact that epidermal TNF-α and IL-23 appear also in non-lesional HS seems to prove these cytokines as excellent therapeutic targets.

High-resolution inelastic x-ray scattering at the high energy density scientific instrument at the European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser.

We introduce a setup to measure high-resolution inelastic x-ray scattering at the High Energy Density scientific instrument at the European X-Ray Free-Electron Laser (XFEL). The setup uses the Si (533) reflection in a channel-cut monochromator and three spherical diced analyzer crystals in near-backscattering geometry to reach a high spectral resolution. An energy resolution of 44 meV is demonstrated for the experimental setup, close to the theoretically achievable minimum resolution. The analyzer crystals and detector are mounted on a curved-rail system, allowing quick and reliable changes in scattering angle without breaking vacuum. The entire setup is designed for operation at 10 Hz, the same repetition rate as the high-power lasers available at the instrument and the fundamental repetition rate of the European XFEL. Among other measurements, it is envisioned that this setup will allow studies of the dynamics of highly transient laser generated states of matter.

X-ray Thomson scattering measurements from hohlraum-driven spheres on the OMEGA laser.

X-ray Thomson scattering (XRTS) is a powerful diagnostic for probing warm and hot dense matter. We present the design and results of the first XRTS experiments with hohlraum-driven CH2 targets on the OMEGA laser facility at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics in Rochester, NY. X-rays seen directly from the XRTS x-ray source overshadow the elastic scattering signal from the target capsule but can be controlled in future experiments. From the inelastic scattering signal, an average plasma temperature is inferred that is in reasonable agreement with the temperatures predicted by simulations. Knowledge gained in this experiment shows a promising future for further XRTS measurements on indirectly driven OMEGA targets.

Modification of membrane cholesterol level affects expression and clustering of class I HLA molecules at the surface of JY human lymphoblasts.

Recently we have found that class I HLA molecules, key elements of the antigen presentation system for CD8 + effector cells, show a clustered lateral distribution (homoassociation) at the surface of activated human T- and B-lymphocytes as well as virus-transformed T- and B-lymphoblasts, in contrast to a disperse distribution on resting human PBLs (Matk6 et al. (1994) J. Immunol. 152, 3353; Bene et al. (1994) Eur. J. Immunol. 24, 2115). Expression of beta2m-free HLA heavy chains and exogenous beta2m have been shown as potential regulation factors of HLA-I clustering, which in turn may affect cytotoxic activity of CD8+ effector cells. Here we report a study on the effect of plasma membrane-modification (by exogenous cholesterol and phosphatidylcholine) on the expression of free HLA heavy chains and beta2m-bound HLA-I molecules on JY human B-lymphoblasts. The modulating effect of these two treatments on the lipid fluidity of cells was demonstrated by fluorescence anisotropy of DPH lipid probe. The lateral clustering (association) of HLA-I molecules was detected by flow cytometric fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FCET) and digital imaging microscopic photobleaching energy transfer (pbFRET) methods, using flourescein-isothiocyanate (FITC) (donor)- and tetramethyl-rhodamine-isothiocyanate (TRITC) (acceptor)-labeled W6/32 or KE2 antibodies directed against intact HLA-I molecules. Cholesterol enrichment of the plasma membrane increased membrane fluidity and reduced the expression of heavy- and light-chain determinants of HLA-I molecules and free heavy chains (FHCs). This was accompanied with a higher degree of HLA-I clustering as shown by the enhanced intermolecular energy transfer efficiency. In contrast, cholesterol depletion resulted in membrane fluidization and increased expression of HLA-I epitopes. Our results suggest that both cholesterol level and lipid structure/fluidity of the plasma membrane in lymphoblastoid cells may also potentially regulate lateral organization and consequently the presentation efficiency of HLA-I molecules.

Ion-channel activities regulate transmembrane signaling in thymocyte apoptosis and T-cell activation.

Several examples have shown that plasma membrane ion channels (e.g., Ca2+ and K+ channels) make an important contribution to lymphocyte activation or thymocyte apoptosis. Here we report on the importance of these ion channels in the sensitivity or resistance of lymphoid cells to extracellular ATP-induced apoptosis. Thymocytes of Balb/c mice responded to extracellular ATP (ATPex) sensitively, with an immediate increase in the intracellular calcium level and later with an increased membrane permeability to low MW markers. Mature (medullary) thymocytes showed a higher sensitivity than did cortical thymocytes. Three human lymphoma cell lines, including SUPT13, a cell line reported to be sensitive to TcR/CD3 activation-induced apoptosis, showed a high resistance to ATPex action. These observations suggest that maturation/differentiation state-dependent activity or disappearance of early ATP-receptor operated signaling systems (including ion channels) are critical for the cells in developing towards apoptosis. Using the patch-clamp technique we demonstrated that bretylium tosylate (a particular K(+)-channel blocker) known as inhibitor of T-lymphocyte proliferation also influences the single-channel properties of voltage-gated K+ channels through depressing whole-cell K+ currents. This finding is yet another example underlying the importance of K+ channel activity in T-lymphocyte proliferation.

Complexity of signal transduction mediated by ErbB2: clues to the potential of receptor-targeted cancer therapy.

The erbB2 oncogene belongs to the type I trans-membrane tyrosine kinase family of receptors. Its medical importance stems from its widespread over-expression in breast cancer. This review will focus on the signal transduction through this protein, and explains how the overexpression of erbB2 may result in poor prognosis of breast cancer, and finally it will summerize our current understanding about the therapeutic potential of receptor-targeted therapy in breast cancer. ErbB2 does not have any known ligand which is able to bind to it with high affinity. However the kinase activity of erbB2 can be activated without any ligand, if it is overexpressed, and by heteroassociation with other members of the erbB family (erbB1 or epidermal growth factor receptor, erbB3 and erbB4). This interaction substantially increases the efficiency and diversity of signal transduction through these receptor complexes. In addition, erbB2 forms large scale receptor clusters containing hundreds of proteins. These receptor islands may take part in recruiting cytosolic factors which relay the signal towards the nucleus or the cytoplasm. Overexpression of erbB2 was linked to higher transforming activity, increased metastatic potential, angiogenesis and drug resistence of breast tumor in laboratory experiments. As a corollary of these properties, erbB2 amplification is generally thought to be associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer patients. These early findings lead to the development of antibodies that down-regulate erbB2. Such a therapeutic approach has already been found effective in experimental tumor models and in clinical trials as well. Further understanding of the importance of erbB2 and growth factor receptors in the transformation of normal cells to malignant ones may once give us a chance to cure erbB2 over-expressing breast cancer.

Organization of the glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa heterodimer on resting human platelets studied by flow cytometric energy transfer.

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa is a heterodimer of glycoproteins IIb and IIIa which serves as the inducible receptor for fibrinogen and other adhesive proteins at the surface of platelets. Although a model of the quaternary structure of the GPIIb/IIIa molecule has been constructed in solution by Calvete et al. [Biochem. J. 282 (1992) 523], a corresponding model at the surface of intact platelets is still missing. In the present work conformation and lateral distribution of the GPIIb/IIIa heterodimer were studied at a nanometer resolution on the surface of resting human platelets under physiological conditions. The experiments were based on dual wavelength flow cytometric detection of fluorescence resonance energy transfer and application of a panel of monoclonal antibodies raised against well described binding sites. Monodisperse distribution of the GPIIb/IIIa heterodimer has been observed and a detailed three-dimensional proximity map of antibody binding sites was constructed on the platelet membrane, under physiological conditions, for the first time. Our data support the view that the GPIIb subunit is in a bent conformation. A detailed analysis of the K(d)-values and the number of binding sites for a set of monoclonal antibodies was also carried out giving supplementary data for the topology of the binding sites. Our results provide a refinement of the membrane-topology of the GPIIb/IIIa heterodimer.

An atomic force microscopy study on the effect of bleaching agents on enamel surface.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of three peroxide-containing bleaching agents, Opalescence, Nite White and a 30% hydrogen peroxide solution, on enamel surfaces using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). METHODS: Fifteen non-carious human incisors (ten maxillary and five mandibular, extracted for periodontal reasons) were used. The teeth were divided randomly into three groups of five, according to the bleaching agents. The labial surface of each tooth was imaged by AFM before and after treatment. Each bleaching agent was applied for a total of 28 h (in individual 4 h treatments). The specimens were examined only after 28 h of treatment. RESULTS: On comparing the AFM images of untreated and treated enamel, surface alterations were observed after 28 h of treatment with Opalescence, Nite White and 30% hydrogen peroxide solution. Several grooves present in the enamel surface of untreated teeth became deeper after the bleaching procedure. The depths of the grooves increased in each case. The increase in the depth of grooves was more pronounced in the case of the 30% H2O2 solution. CONCLUSION: Home-use bleaching agents are capable of causing enamel surface alterations. It is hypothesized that the peroxide-containing bleaching agents affect the organic phase of enamel. Peroxides can affect not only the surface but also the inner structure of enamel. As a result of its low molecular weight, hydrogen peroxide can penetrate into the enamel. Thus, inner oxidative effects are more likely to occur in the subsurface enamel where more organic material is present and oxidation is capable of altering the outer enamel and the surface.

Luminescence quenching by long range electron transfer: a probe of protein clustering and conformation at the cell surface.

Quenching of luminescence from fluorescent and phosphorescent probes by nitroxide spin labels with a long range electron transfer (LRET) mechanism (44,45) has been tested as a tool to monitor association/clustering and conformational changes of cell surface proteins. The membrane proteins were labeled with monoclonal antibodies or Fab fragments conjugated with luminescent probes or water-soluble nitroxide spin labels. The method was tested as a probe of 3 different aspects of protein-protein association involving class I MHC molecules: (1) interaction between the heavy and light chains of the MHC molecules, (2) clustering, self-association of MHC molecules, (3) proximity of MHC molecules to transferrin receptors of fibroblasts or surface immunoglobulin molecules of B lymphoblasts. The extent of quenching upon increasing the fractional density of the quencher was sensitive for protein association in accordance with earlier immunoprecipitation and flow cytometric Förster-type energy transfer (FCET) data obtained on the same cells. These data suggest that the LRET quenching can be used as intra- or intermolecular ruler in a 0.5-2.5 nm distance range. This approach is simpler (measurements only on donor side) and faster than many other experimental techniques in screening physical association or conformational changes of membrane proteins by means of spectrofluorimetry, flow cytometry, or microscope based imaging.

Activation-dependent clustering of the erbB2 receptor tyrosine kinase detected by scanning near-field optical microscopy.

ErbB2 (HER2, Neu), a member of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor tyrosine kinase family, is often overexpressed in breast cancer and other malignancies. ErbB2 homodimerizes but also presents as a common auxiliary subunit of the EGF and heregulin receptors (erbB1 or EGFR; and erbB3-4, respectively), with which it heteroassociates. ErbB2 is generally regarded as an orphan (ligand-less) receptor with a very potent kinase domain activated either via its associated partners or constitutively as a consequence of discrete mutations. It follows that the extent and regulation of its cell surface interactions are of central importance. We have studied the large-scale association pattern of erbB2 in quiescent and activated cells labeled with fluorescent anti-erbB2 monoclonal antibodies using scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). ErbB2 was found to be concentrated in irregular membrane patches with a mean diameter of approx. 0.5 microm in nonactivated SKBR3 and MDA453 human breast tumor cells. The average number of erbB2 proteins in a single cluster on nonactivated SKBR3 cells was about 10(3). Activation of SKBR3 cells with EGF, heregulin as well as a partially agonistic anti-erbB2 monoclonal antibody led to an increase in the mean cluster diameter to 0.6-0.9 microm, irrespective of the ligand. The EGF-induced increase in the erbB2 cluster size was inhibited by the EGFR-specific tyrosine kinase inhibitor PD153035. The average size of erbB2 clusters on the erbB2-transfected line of CHO cells (CB2) was similar to that of activated SKBR3 cells, a finding correlated with the increased base-line tyrosine phosphorylation of erbB2 in cells expressing only erbB2. We conclude that an increase in cluster size may constitute a general phenomenon in the activation of erbB2.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer detected by scanning near-field optical microscopy.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between excited fluorescent donor and acceptor molecules occurs via the Förster mechanism over a range of 1-10 nm. Because of the strong (sixth power) distance dependence of the signal, FRET has been used to assess the proximity of molecules in biological systems. We used a scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM) operated in the shared-aperture mode using uncoated glass fibre tips to detect FRET between dye molecules embedded in polyvinyl alcohol films and bound to cell surfaces. FRET was detected by selective photobleaching of donor and acceptor fluorophores. We also present preliminary results on pixel-by-pixel energy transfer efficiency measurements using SNOM.

Picosecond multiphoton scanning near-field optical microscopy.

We have implemented simultaneous picosecond pulsed two- and three-photon excitation of near-UV and visible absorbing fluorophores in a scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM). The 1064-nm emission from a pulsed Nd:YVO4 laser was used to excite the visible mitochondrial specific dye MitoTracker Orange CM-H2TMRos or a Cy3-labeled antibody by two-photon excitation, and the UV absorbing DNA dyes DAPI and the bisbenzimidazole BBI-342 by three-photon excitation, in a shared aperture SNOM using uncoated fiber tips. Both organelles in human breast adenocarcinoma cells (MCF 7) and specific protein bands on polytene chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster doubly labeled with a UV and visible dye were readily imaged without photodamage to the specimens. The fluorescence intensities showed the expected nonlinear dependence on the excitation power over the range of 5-40 mW. An analysis of the dependence of fluorescence intensity on the tip-sample displacement normal to the sample surface revealed a higher-order function for the two-photon excitation compared to the one-photon mode. In addition, the sample photobleaching patterns corresponding to one- and two-photon modes revealed a greater lateral confinement of the excitation in the two-photon case. Thus, as in optical microscopy, two-photon excitation in SNOM is confined to a smaller volume.

Analysis of cell surface molecular distributions and cellular signaling by flow cytometry.

Flow cytometry is a fast analysis and separation method for large cell populations, based on collection and processing of optical signals gained on a cell-by-cell basis. These optical signals are scattered light and fluorescence. Owing to its unique potential ofStatistical data analysis and sensitive monitoring of (micro)heterogeneities in large cell populations, flow cytometry-in combination with microscopic imaging techniques-is a powerful tool to study molecular details of cellular signal transduction processes as well. The method also has a widespread clinical application, mostly in analysis of lymphocyte subpopulations for diagnostic (or research) purposes in diseases related to the immune system. A special application of flow cytometry is the mapping of molecular interactions (proximity relationships between membrane proteins) at the cell surface, on a cell-by-cell basis. We developed two approaches to study such questions; both are based ondistance-dependent quenching of excited state fluorophores (donors) by fluorescent or dark (nitroxide radical) acceptors via Förstertype dipole-dipole resonance energy transfer (FRET) and long-range electron transfer (LRET) mechanisms, respectively. A critical evaluation of these methods using donor- or acceptor-conjugated monoclonal antibodies (or their Fab fragments) to select the appropriate cell surface receptor or antigen will be presented in comparison with other approaches for similar purposes. The applicability of FRET and LRET for two-dimensional antigen mapping as well as for detection of conformational changes in extracellular domains of membrane-bound proteins is discussed and illustrated by examples of several lymphoma cell lines. Another special application area of flow cytometry is the analysis of different aspects of cellular signal transduction, e.g., changes of intracellular ion (Ca(2+), H(+), Na(+)) concentrations, regulation of ion channel activities, or more complex physiological responses of cell to external stimuli via correlated fluorescence and scatter signal analysis, on a cell-by-cell basis. This way different signaling events such as changes in membrane permeability, membrane potential, cell size and shape, ion distribution, cell density, chromatin structure, etc., can be easily and quickly monitored over large cell populations with the advantage of revealing microheterogeneities in the cellular responses. Flow cytometry also offers the possibility to follow the kinetics of slow (minute- and hour-scale) biological processes in cell populations. These applications are illustrated by the example of complex flow cytometric analysis of signaling in extracellular ATP-triggered apoptosis (programmed cell death) of murine thymic lymphocytes.

Structural hierarchy in the clustering of HLA class I molecules in the plasma membrane of human lymphoblastoid cells.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I antigens in the plasma membranes of human T (HUT-102B2) and B (JY) lymphoma cells were probed by immunochemical reagents using fluorescence, transmission electron, and scanning force microscopies. Fluorescent labels were attached to monoclonal antibodies W6/32 or KE-2 directed against the heavy chain of HLA class I (A, B, C) and L368 or HB28 against the beta 2-microglobulin light chain. The topological distribution in the nanometer range was studied by photobleaching fluorescence resonance energy transfer (pbFRET) on single cells. A nonrandom codistribution pattern of MHC class I molecules was observed over distances of 2-10 nm. A second, nonrandom, and larger-scale topological organization of the MHC class I antigens was detected by indirect immunogold labeling and imaging by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning force microscopy (SFM). Although some differences in antigen distribution between the B- and T-cell lines were detected by pbFRET, both cell lines exhibited similar clustering patterns by TEM and SFM. Such defined molecular distributions on the surfaces of cells of the immune system may reflect an underlying specialization of membrane lipid domains and fulfill important functional roles in cell-cell contacts and signal transduction.

Colocalization and nonrandom distribution of Kv1.3 potassium channels and CD3 molecules in the plasma membrane of human T lymphocytes.

Distribution and lateral organization of Kv1.3 potassium channels and CD3 molecules were studied by using electron microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Immunogold labeling and electron microscopy showed that the distribution of FLAG epitope-tagged Kv1.3 channels (Kv1.3/FLAG) significantly differs from the stochastic Poisson distribution in the plasma membrane of human T lymphoma cells. Confocal laser scanning microscopy images showed that Kv1.3/FLAG channels and CD3 molecules accumulated in largely overlapping membrane areas. The numerical analysis of crosscorrelation of the spatial intensity distributions yielded a high correlation coefficient (C = 0.64). A different hierarchical level of molecular proximity between Kv1.3/FLAG and CD3 proteins was reported by a high fluorescence resonance energy transfer efficiency (E = 51%). These findings implicate that reciprocal regulation of ion-channel activity, membrane potential, and the function of receptor complexes may contribute to the proper functioning of the immunological synapse.

HLA class I and II antigens are partially co-clustered in the plasma membrane of human lymphoblastoid cells.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules displayed clustered patterns at the surfaces of T (HUT-102B2) and B (JY) lymphoma cells characterized by interreceptor distances in the micrometer range as detected by scanning force microscopy of immunogold-labeled antigens. Electron microscopy revealed that a fraction of the MHC class II molecules was also heteroclustered with MHC class I antigens at the same hierarchical level as described by the scanning force microscopy data, after specifically and sequentially labeling the antigens with 30- and 15-nm immunogold beads. On JY cells the estimated fraction of co-clustered HLA II was 0.61, whereas that of the HLA I was 0.24. Clusterization of the antigens was detected by the deviation of their spatial distribution from the Poissonian distribution representing the random case. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements also confirmed partial co-clustering of the HLA class I and II molecules at another hierarchical level characterized by the 2- to 10-nm Förster distance range and providing fine details of the molecular organization of receptors. The larger-scale topological organization of the MHC class I and II antigens may reflect underlying membrane lipid domains and may fulfill significant functions in cell-to-cell contacts and signal transduction.

Cholesterol-dependent clustering of IL-2Ralpha and its colocalization with HLA and CD48 on T lymphoma cells suggest their functional association with lipid rafts.

Immunogold staining and electron microscopy show that IL-2 receptor alpha-subunits exhibit nonrandom surface distribution on human T lymphoma cells. Analysis of interparticle distances reveals that this clustering on the scale of a few hundred nanometers is independent of the presence of IL-2 and of the expression of the IL-2R beta-subunit. Clustering of IL-2Ralpha is confirmed by confocal microscopy, yielding the same average cluster size, approximately 600-800 nm, as electron microscopy. HLA class I and II and CD48 molecules also form clusters of the same size. Disruption of cholesterol-rich lipid rafts with filipin or depletion of membrane cholesterol with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin results in the blurring of cluster boundaries and an apparent dispersion of clusters for all four proteins. Interestingly, the transferrin receptor, which is thought to be located outside lipid rafts, exhibits clusters that are only 300 nm in size and are less affected by modifying the membrane cholesterol content. Furthermore, transferrin receptor clusters hardly colocalize with IL-2Ralpha, HLA, and CD48 molecules (crosscorrelation coefficient is 0.05), whereas IL-2Ralpha colocalizes with both HLA and CD48 (crosscorrelation coefficient is between 0.37 and 0.46). This coclustering is confirmed by electron microscopy. The submicron clusters of IL-2Ralpha chains and their coclustering with HLA and CD48, presumably associated with lipid rafts, could underlie the efficiency of signaling in lymphoid cells.