The debate on apraxia and the supplementary motor area in the twentieth century.

Hand function and apraxia are equally relevant to neurosurgeons: as a symptom, as well as through the functional anatomy of "praxis" which underlies the dexterity needed for neurosurgical practice. The supplementary motor area is crucial for its understanding. Historically, Hugo Liepmann dominated the apraxia debate at the beginning of the twentieth century, a debate that has remained influential until today. Kurt Goldstein, a contemporary of Liepmann, is regularly mentioned as the first to have described the alien hand syndrome in 1909. Wilder Penfield was a key figure in exploring the role of the fronto-mesial cortex in human motor control and coined the term "supplementary motor area". It was Goldstein who not only contributed substantially to the apraxia debate more than 100 years ago; he also established the link between the dysfunction of the fronto-mesial cortex and abnormal higher motor control in humans.

The extradural minipterional approach for the treatment of paraclinoid aneurysms: a cadaver stepwise dissection and clinical case series.

Minipterional (MPT) craniotomy has recently been added to the neurosurgical armamentarium as a less invasive alternative to the pterional craniotomy for the treatment of parasellar lesions. However, its clinical applicability in the treatment of certain complex aneurysms, such as those arising in the paraclinoid region, remains unclear. To illustrate the microsurgical anatomy of a modified extradural MPT approach, which combines a classic MPT craniotomy with an extradural anterior clinoidectomy, and to demonstrate its clinical applicability in the treatment of complex paraclinoid aneurysms. A stepwise extradural MPT approach is illustrated in a cadaver study. Clinical outcome data from a series of 19 patients with 20 paraclinoid aneurysms treated surgically using the extradural MPT approach between 2016 and 2018 were retrospectively collected. In 95% of the cases, complete aneurysm occlusion was achieved. No aneurysm recurrences were seen during follow-up with a median length of 21 months. The outcome, according to the modified Rankin Scale, was 0 points in 12 patients (63%), 1 point in 6 patients (32%), and 2 points in 1 patient (5%). Four out of 6 patients (67%) with initial visual symptoms showed improvement following treatment, whereas in two (11%), vision became worse. The extradural MPT approach ensures a sufficiently large exposure of the paraclinoid region that is comparable with conventional approaches with the advantage of being minimally invasive. Our case series demonstrates the feasibility of this approach for the treatment of complex paraclinoid aneurysms.

WHO grade I meningiomas: classification-tree for prognostic factors of survival.

World Health Organization (WHO) grade I meningiomas are intracranial extracerebral tumors, in which microsurgery as a stand-alone therapy provides high rates of disease control and low recurrence rates. Our aim was to identify prognostic factors of overall survival and time-to-retreat (OS; TTR) in a cohort of patients with surgically managed WHO grade I meningioma. Patients with WHO grade I meningiomas from a retrospectively (1990 to 2002) and prospectively managed (2003 to 2010) databank of Oslo University Hospital, Norway, were included. The mean follow-up was 9.2 ± 5.7 years, with a total of 11,414 patient-years. One thousand three hundred fifty-five patients were included. The mean age was 58 ± 13.2, mean Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS) 92.6 ± 26.1 and female-to-male ratio 2.5:1. The 1-year, 5-year, 10-year, 15-year, and 20-year probabilities were 0.98, 0.91, 0.87, 0.84, and 0.8 for TTR. Patient age (OR 0.92 [0.91, 0.94]), male sex (OR 0.59 [0.45, 0.76]), preoperative KPS ≥ 70 (OR 2.22 [1.59, 3.13]), skull base location (OR 0.77 [0.60, 1]), and the occurrence of a postoperative hematoma (OR 0.44 [0.26, 0.76]) were identified as independent prognostic factors of OS. Patient age (OR 1.02 [1.01, 1.03]) and skull base location (OR 0.30 [0.21, 0.45]) were independent predictors of decreased PFS. Using a recursive partitioning analysis, we suggest a classification tree for the prediction of 5-year PFS based on patient and tumor characteristics. The findings from this cohort of meningioma WHO I patients helps to identify patients at risk of recurrence and tailor the therapeutic management.

Enhanced recovery after spine surgery: review of the literature

The concept of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) entails recovery facilitation of patients who undergo surgery through the implementation of a multidisciplinary and multimodal perioperative care approach. By its application, ERAS improves the overall functional outcome after surgery while maintaining high standards of care. A review of the essential aspects of ERAS in spine surgery was undertaken. Special consideration was given to the risks and benefits for patients and caregivers, as well as the medical and economical aspects of this concept. ABBREVIATIONS EBL = estimated blood loss; ERAS = Enhanced Recovery After Surgery; MISS = minimally invasive spine surgery; TLIF = transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion.

Objective functional assessment using the "Timed Up and Go" test in patients with lumbar spinal stenosis.

OBJECTIVEPatient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) are standard of care for the assessment of functional impairment. Subjective outcome measures are increasingly complemented by objective ones, such as the "Timed Up and Go" (TUG) test. Currently, only a few studies report pre- and postoperative TUG test assessments in patients with lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS).METHODSA prospective two-center database was reviewed to identify patients with LSS who underwent lumbar decompression with or without fusion. The subjective functional status was estimated using PROMs for pain (visual analog scale [VAS]), disability (Roland-Morris Disability Index [RMDI] and Oswestry Disability Index [ODI]), and health-related quality of life (HRQoL; 12-Item Short-Form Physical Component Summary [SF-12 PCS] and the EQ-5D) preoperatively, as well as on postoperative day 3 (D3) and week 6 (W6). Objective functional impairment (OFI) was measured using age- and sex-standardized TUG test results.RESULTSSixty-four patients (n = 32 [50%] male, mean age 66.8 ± 11.7 years) were included. Preoperatively, they reported a mean VAS back pain score of 4.1 ± 2.7, VAS leg pain score of 5.4 ± 2.7, RMDI of 10.4 ± 5.3, ODI of 41.9 ± 16.2, SF-12 PCS score of 32.7 ± 8.3, and an EQ-5D index of 0.517 ± 0.226. The preoperative rates of severe, moderate, and mild OFI were 4.7% (n = 3), 12.5% (n = 8), and 7.8% (n = 5), respectively, and the mean OFI T-score was 116.3 ± 23.7. At W6, 60 (93.8%) of 64 patients had a TUG test result within the normal population range (no OFI); 3 patients (4.7%) had mild and 1 patient (1.6%) severe OFI. The mean W6 OFI T-score was significantly decreased (103.1 ± 13.6; p < 0.001). Correspondingly, the PROMs showed a decrease in subjective VAS back pain (1.6 ± 1.7, p < 0.001) and leg pain (1.0 ± 1.8, p < 0.001) scores, disability (RMDI 5.3 ± 4.7, p < 0.001; ODI 21.3 ± 16.1, p < 0.001), and increase in HRQoL (SF-12 PCS 40.1 ± 8.3, p < 0.001; EQ-5D 0.737 ± 0.192, p < 0.001) at W6. The W6 responder status (clinically meaningful improvement) ranged between 81.3% (VAS leg pain) and 29.7% (EQ-5D index) of patients.CONCLUSIONSThe TUG test is a quick and easily applicable tool that reliably measures OFI in patients with LSS. Objective tests incorporating longer walking time should be considered if OFI is suspected but fails to be proven by the TUG test, taking into account that neurogenic claudication may not clinically manifest during the brief TUG examination. Objective tests do not replace the subjective PROM-based assessment, but add valuable information to a comprehensive patient evaluation.

Posterior fossa meningiomas: perioperative predictors of extent of resection, overall survival and progression-free survival.

BACKGROUND: Posterior fossa meningiomas (PFMs) often represent surgical challenges due to their proximity to neurovascular structures. Factors predicting the extent of resection (EOR), overall survival (OS), and progression-free survival (PFS) were identified and integrated in a prediction tool to offer evidence-based personalized therapeutic strategies. METHODS: All meningiomas managed surgically from 1990 to 2010 from a single-center were reviewed. A classification tree was created using the classification and regression tree recursive partitioning analysis that incorporated patient and tumor data available before surgery in order to predict the rates of gross total resection (GTR). RESULTS: A total of 198 patients were identified (female-to-male ratio, 2.7; mean age, 59.1 years) and compared with 1271 supratentorial meningiomas (STMs) operated in the same institution during the same time period. GTR was achieved less often (59.6% versus 81.9%; p < 0.01) in PFMs than STMs. Preoperative neurological symptoms were predictive of higher Simpson grades (OR, 2.19 [1.05; 4.58]; p = 0.04). Age was associated with reduced OS (OR, 1.08 [1.04;1.12]; p < 0.001). A KPS ≥ 70 was associated with higher survival rates (OR, 2.70 [2.19;2.92]; p = 0.02). Higher WHO grades were associated with reduced OS (OR, 3.56 [1.02;12.47]; p = 0.05). The GTR rate varies from 80% in patients without a preoperative deficit to 40% patients with a preoperative deficit, younger than 60 years old, and with adjacent bone invasion. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a classification tree of the predictors of EOR in PFMs, based upon preoperative demographic, clinical, and radiological variables. An evidence-based management protocol with estimated EORs may guide the decision-making process in PFMs.

Intracranial Electroencephalographic Monitoring: From Subdural to Depth Electrodes.

At the London Health Sciences Centre Epilepsy Program, stereotactically implanted depth electrodes have largely replaced subdural electrodes in the presurgical investigation of patients with drug-resistant epilepsy over the past 4 years. The rationale for this paradigm shift was more experience with, and improved surgical techniques for, stereoelectroencephalography, a possible lower-risk profile for depth electrodes, better patient tolerability, shorter operative time, as well as increased recognition of potential surgical targets that are not accessible to subdural electrodes.

Neurodegenerative cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers tau and amyloid beta predict functional, quality of life, and neuropsychological outcomes after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers might be useful in predicting outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). It was the aim to determine whether tau and amyloid beta CSF concentrations predict functional, health-related quality of life (hrQoL), and neuropsychological outcomes after aSAH. Ventricular CSF was obtained from n = 24 aSAH patients at admission (D0), day 2 (D2), and day 6 (D6). CSF total (t)Tau, phosphorylated (p)Tau(181P), and amyloid beta(1-40 and 1-42) (Aß40/Aß42) levels were compared between patients with favorable and unfavorable functional (modified Rankin Scale (mRS)), hrQoL (Euro-Qol (EQ-5D)), and neuropsychological outcomes at 3 (3 m) and 12 months (12 m). Patients with unfavorable functional (mRS 4-6) and hrQoL outcome (EQ-5D z-score ≤ - 1.0) at 3 and 12 m had higher CSF tTau/pTau and lower Aß40/Aß42 at D0, D2, and D6 with varying degrees of statistical significance. In terms of predicting neuropsychological outcome, CSF pTau showed a statistically significant correlation with the z-scores of executive function (r = - 0.7486, p = 0.008), verbal memory (r = - 0.8101, p = 0.002), attention (r = - 0.6498, p = 0.030), and visuospatial functioning (r = - 0.6944, p = 0.017) at 3 m. At 12 m, CSF pTau had statistically significant correlations with the z-scores of verbal memory (r = - 0.7473, p = 0.008) and visuospatial functioning (r = - 0.6678, p = 0.024). In conclusion, higher tTau/pTau and lower Aß40/Aß42 CSF levels predict unfavorable long-term functional and hrQoL outcomes. Neuropsychological deficits correlate with increased CSF tTau and pTau concentrations.

The value of short-term pain relief in predicting the long-term outcome of 'indirect' cervical epidural steroid injections.

BACKGROUND: The predictive value of short-term arm pain relief after 'indirect' cervical epidural steroid injection (ESI) for the 1-month treatment response has been previously demonstrated. It remained to be answered whether the long-term response could be estimated by the early post-interventional pain course as well. METHODS: Prospective observational study, following a cohort of n = 45 patients for a period of 24 months after 'indirect' ESI for radiculopathy secondary to a single-level cervical disk herniation (CDH). Arm and neck pain on the visual analog scale (VAS), health-related quality of life with the Short Form-12 (SF-12), and functional outcome with the Neck Pain and Disability (NPAD) Scale were assessed. Any additional invasive treatment after a single injection (second injection or surgery) defined treatment outcome as 'non-response'. RESULTS: At 24 months, n = 30 (66.7%) patients were responders and n = 15 (33.3%) were non-responders. Non-responders exited the follow-up at 1 month (n = 10), at 3 months (n = 4), and at 6 months (n = 1). No patients were injected again or operated on between the 6- and 24-month follow-up. Patients with favorable treatment response at 24 months had significantly lower VAS arm pain (p < 0.05) than non-responders at days 6, 8-11, and at the 3-month follow-up. The previously defined cut-off of > 50% short term pain reduction was not a reliable predictor of the 24-month responder status. SF-12 and NPAD scores were better among treatment responders in the long term. CONCLUSIONS: Patients who require a second injection or surgery after 'indirect' cervical ESI for a symptomatic CDH do so within the first 6 months. Short-term pain relief cannot reliably predict the long-term outcome.

A Consult Is Just a Page Away: A Prospective Observational Study on the Impact of Jinxing on Call Karma in Neurosurgery.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to assess the impact of jinxing on "call karma" in neurosurgery. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study on 15 residents on call for the neurosurgery service, recording the total number of admissions, consults, deaths encountered, surgeries performed, hours of sleep and subjective call rating on a numeric rating scale (NRS) of 0-10 in terms of general awfulness. RESULTS: Some 204 on-call nightshifts were analyzed, of which 61 (29.9%) were jinxed and 143 (70.1%) were nonjinxed. Jinxes seemed to occur in clusters. The baseline parameters (experience, type of call coverage and superstition level) of the study groups were well balanced. A trend toward more surgeries was observed during jinxed nights, where residents slept significantly less (mean 147.8±96.2 vs. 180.9±106.1 min, p=0.037) and rated their on-call experience worse on the NRS (4.4±2.2 vs. 3.5±2.0, p=0.011), while there was no significant difference in number of admissions, consults or deaths. CONCLUSIONS: The act of jinxing ought to be avoided in the neurosurgical setting, as it might be potentially harmful to resident call karma, irrespective of level of experience, resources and personal beliefs.

Kurt Goldstein and his nonlocationist thoughts on aphasia-a pioneer of early network theories at the beginning of the twentieth century?

In between Carl Wernicke's locationist aphasia concept from 1874 and Norman Geschwind's new connectionist model of human brain functions in 1965, little notice was taken of the historical debate on aphasia and brain plasticity. Interestingly, Kurt Goldstein made long-forgotten, but highly relevant remarks on the connectionist model and thereby served as an important connecting link between Wernicke and Geschwind. With the original contributions of Goldstein and contemporary authors, we analyzed the historical background of the aphasia debate in the time period between Wernicke and Geschwind, which still influences current aphasia concepts and neurosurgical practice of today.

The value of short-term pain relief in predicting the 1-month outcome of 'indirect' cervical epidural steroid injections.

BACKGROUND: Clinical management after epidural steroid injections (ESI) of patients with radiculopathy secondary to a cervical disc herniation (CDH) is uncertain. This study aims to determine whether short-term arm pain alleviation following computed tomography-guided 'indirect' cervical ESI can predict the 1-month outcome. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observation of 45 consecutive patients at a tertiary radiological department. Study components were visual analog scale arm and neck pain at baseline, 15, 30, and 45 min, 1, 2, and 4 h, on days 1-14, 1 month, and at 1 year. Health-related quality of life and functional impairment were assessed using the short form-12 and Neck Pain and Disability Scale. Patients who reported ≥80 % persisting arm pain, as well as patients who underwent a second injection or an operation within 1 month were defined as 'non-responders'. Logistic regression was used to analyze the effect size of the relationship between >50 % pain relief at any given study visit and responder status. RESULTS: Patients experiencing a >50 % pain reduction 4 h after the injection were four times as likely to be responders as those experiencing ≤50 % pain reduction (OR 4.04, 95 % CI 1.10-14.87). The effect was strongest on days 5-6 (OR 18.37, 95 % CI 3.39-99.64) and remained significant until day 14. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study can guide physicians in managing patients with CDH: a ≤50 % arm pain relief within 1 week after an 'indirect' cervical ESI predicts an unfavorable 1-month outcome and suggests that other treatment options may be considered at an earlier point in time.

The usefulness of radiological grading scales to predict pain intensity, functional impairment, and health-related quality of life after surgery for lumbar degenerative disc disease.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study is to determine the relationship of radiological grading scales of lumbar degenerative disc disease (DDD) with postoperative pain intensity, functional impairment, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). METHODS: Response to surgical treatment at 6 weeks (W6) on the visual analogue scale (VAS) for back and leg pain, Oswestry-Disability (ODI) and Roland-Morris Disability Index (RMDI), Timed Up and Go (TUG) test, EuroQol (EQ) 5D, and Short-Form Health-Survey (SF-12) physical component summary (PCS) was compared between patients with different Modic (MOD) and Pfirrmann (PFI) grades. Longitudinal outcomes at day 3 (D3), W6, 6 months (M6), and 1 year (Y1) were compared. RESULTS: The study included 338 patients (mean age, 58.6 years), of which n = 202 (59.8%) had MOD 1-3 and n = 217 (64.2%) PFI 4-5 changes. Patients with MOD 1-3 were as likely as patients without MOD changes to be treatment-responders at W6 in terms of VAS leg pain, ODI, RMDI, TUG, EQ5D, and SF-12 PCS. Similarly, patients with PFI 4-5 were as likely as patients with PFI 1-3 changes to be treatment-responders at W6. Longitudinal outcomes were similar at D3, W6, M6, and Y1 between patients with and without MOD changes. Patients with PFI 4-5 fared similar to those with PFI 1-3 except for inferior HRQoL on the SF-12 PCS metric at Y1. CONCLUSIONS: There was no distinct relationship between commonly used radiological grading scales of lumbar DDD with clinical outcome. Therefore, no prognosis should be made on the grounds of preoperative PFI and MOD classifications for patients undergoing spine surgery for lumbar DDD.

The influence of lunar phases and zodiac sign 'Leo' on perioperative complications and outcome in elective spine surgery.

BACKGROUND: Many people believe that the moon has an influence on daily life, and some even request elective surgery dates depending on the moon calendar. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of 'unfavorable' lunar or zodiac constellations on perioperative complications and outcome in elective surgery for degenerative disc disease. METHODS: Retrospective database analysis including 924 patients. Using uni- and multivariate logistic regression, the likelihood for intraoperative complications and re-do surgeries as well as the clinical outcomes at 4 weeks was analyzed for surgeries performed during the waxing moon, full moon, and dates when the moon passed through the zodiac sign 'Leo.' RESULTS: In multivariate analysis, patients operated on during the waxing moon were 1.54 times as likely as patients who were operated on during the waning moon to suffer from an intraoperative complication (OR 1.54, 95 % CI 1.07-2.21, p = 0.019). In contrast, there was a trend toward fewer re-do surgeries for surgery during the waxing moon (OR 0.51, 95 % CI 0.23-1.16, p = 0.109), while the 4-week responder status was similar (OR 0.73, 95 % CI 0.47-1.14, p = 0.169). A full moon and the zodiac sign Leo did not increase the likelihood for complications, re-do surgeries or unfavorable outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: We found no influence of 'unfavorable' lunar or zodiac constellations on the 4-week responder status or the revision rate that would justify a moon calendar-based selection approach to elective spine surgery dates. However, the fact that patients undergoing surgery during the waxing moon were more likely to suffer from an intraoperative complication is a surprising curiosity and defies our ability to find a rational explanation.

Microscopic lumbar spinal stenosis decompression: is surgical education safe?

BACKGROUND: Acquiring operative skills in the course of a structured neurosurgery residency training program is vital to safely operating on patients autonomously upon board certification. We tested the hypothesis that the complication rates and outcome of microscopic lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) decompression done by supervised residents are not inferior to those of board-certified faculty neurosurgeons (BCFNs). METHODS: Retrospective single-center study performed at a Swiss teaching hospital comparing consecutive patients undergoing surgery for LSS by a supervised neurosurgery resident (teaching cases) to a consecutive series of patients operated on by a BCFN (non-teaching cases). The primary endpoint was occurrence of complications during surgery. Secondary endpoints were patients' clinical outcomes 4 weeks after surgery, categorized into a binary responder and non-responder variable, occurrence of postoperative complications, need for re-do surgery, and clinical outcome until the last follow-up (FU). RESULTS: In a total of n = 471 operations, n = 194 (41.2 %) were teaching cases and n = 277 (58.8 %) non-teaching cases. A longer operation time (single-level procedures: mean 100.0 vs. 83.2 min, p < 0.001) was recorded for teaching cases, while estimated blood loss was equal (single-level procedures: mean 109.9 vs. 117.0 ml, p = 0.409). In multivariate analysis, supervised residents were as likely as BCFNs to have an intraoperative complication (OR 0.92, 95 % CI 0.41-2.04, p = 0.835). They were as likely as BCFNs to achieve a favorable 4-week response to surgery (OR 1.82, 95 % CI 0.79-4.15, p = 0.155). Until final FU, the likelihood for patients in the teaching group to suffer from postoperative complications (OR 1.07, 95 % CI 0.46-2.49, p = 0.864) or require re-do surgery (OR 0.68, 95 % CI 0.31-1.52, p = 0.358) was similar to that of the non-teaching group. CONCLUSIONS: Complication rates and short- and mid-term outcomes following LSS decompression were comparable for patients operated on by supervised neurosurgery residents and senior neurosurgeons. Our data thus indicate that a structured neurosurgical hands-on training including LSS decompression is safe for patients.

Terson syndrome in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage-its relation to intracranial pressure, admission factors, and clinical outcome.

BACKGROUND: A large number of reports have not been able to clarify the pathophysiology of Terson syndrome (TS) in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). METHODS: Prospective single-center study on aSAH patients. Fundoscopic and radiological signs of TS were assessed. The opening intracranial pressure (ICP) in patients who required a ventriculostomy was recorded with a manometer. RESULTS: Six out of 36 included patients had TS (16.7 %), which was associated with unfavorable admission scores. Twenty-nine patients (80.5 %) required ventriculostomy; TS was associated with higher ICP (median, 40 vs. 15 cm cmH2O, p = .003); all patients with TS had pathological ICP values of >20 cmH2O. Patients with a ruptured aneurysm of the anterior cerebral artery complex were ten times as likely to suffer from TS (OR 10.0, 95 % CI 1.03-97.50). Detection of TS on CT had a sensitivity of 50 %, a specificity of 98.4 %, a positive predictive value of 83.3 %, and a negative predictive value of 92.4 %. Mortality was 45 times as high in patients with TS (OR 45.0, 95 % CI 3.86-524.7) and neurologic morbidity up until 3 months post-aSAH was significantly higher in patients with TS (mRS 4-6; 100 vs. 17 %; p = .001). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate an association between raised ICP and the incidence of TS. TS should be ruled out in aSAH patients presenting comatose or with raised ICP to ensure upfront ophthalmological follow-up. In alert patients without visual complaints and a TS-negative CT scan, the likelihood for the presence of TS is very low.

Pre- and postoperative correlation of patient-reported outcome measures with standardized Timed Up and Go (TUG) test results in lumbar degenerative disc disease.

BACKGROUND: The Timed Up and Go (TUG) test is a reliable tool for evaluating objective functional impairment (OFI) in patients with degenerative disc disease before a surgical intervention. The aim of this study is to assess the validity of the TUG test to measure change in function postoperatively. METHODS: In a prospective two-center study, OFI was assessed by the TUG test in patients scheduled for lumbar spine surgery, as well as 3 days (D3) and 6 weeks (W6) postoperatively. At each time point, the TUG test results were correlated with established subjective measures of pain intensity (visual analogue scale (VAS) for back and leg pain), functional impairment (Oswestry Disability Index (ODI)) and health-related quality of life (HRQoL; Short Form-12 (SF12)). RESULTS: The patient cohort comprised 136 patients with a mean age of 57.7 years; 76 were males, 54 had a microdiscectomy for lumbar disc herniation, 58 a decompression for a lumbar spinal stenosis, 24 had a surgical fusion procedure. The mean OFI t-score was 125.1 before surgery, and as patients improved on the subjective measures in the postoperative interval, the OFI t-score likewise decreased to 118.8 (D3) and 103.4 (W6). The Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC) between the OFI t-score and VAS leg pain was 0.187 preoperatively (p = 0.029) and 0.252 at W6 (p = 0.003). The PCC between OFI t-score and the ODI was 0.324 preoperatively (p < 0.001) and 0.413 at W6 (p < 0.001). The PCC between OFI t-score and physical HRQoL (SF12) was -0.091 preoperatively (p = 0.293) and -0.330 at W6 (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The TUG test is sensitive to change, and reflects the postoperative functional outcome even more exact than preoperatively, as indicated by better correlation coefficients of the OFI t-score with subjective measures of pain intensity, functional impairment and HRQoL.

Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion: is surgical education safe?

BACKGROUND: Operative skills are key to neurosurgical resident training. They should be acquired in a structured manner and preferably starting early in residency. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the outcome and complication rate of anterior cervical discectomy and fusion with or without instrumentation (ACDF(I)) is not inferior for supervised residents as compared to board-certified faculty neurosurgeons (BCFN). METHODS: This was a retrospective single-center study of all consecutive patients undergoing ACDF(I)-surgery between January 2011 and August 2014. All procedures were dichotomized into two groups according to the surgeon's level of experience: teaching cases (postgraduate year (PGY)-2 to PGY-6 neurosurgical residents) and non-teaching cases operated by BCFN. The primary study endpoint was patients' clinical outcome 4 weeks after surgery, categorized into a binary responder and non-responder variable. Secondary endpoints were complications, need for re-do surgery, and clinical outcome until the last follow-up. RESULTS: After exclusion of six cases because of incomplete data, a total of 287 ACDF(I) operations were enrolled into the study, of which 82 (29.2 %) were teaching cases and 199 (70.8 %) were non-teaching cases. Teaching cases required a longer operation time (131 min (95 % confidence interval (CI) 122-141 min) vs. 102 min (95-108 min; p < 0.0001) and were associated with a slightly higher estimated blood loss (84 ml (95 % CI 56-111 ml) vs. 57 ml (95 % CI 47-66 ml); p = 0.0017), while there was no difference in the rate of intraoperative complications (2.4 vs. 1.5 %; p = 0.631). Four weeks after surgery, 92.7 and 93 % of the patients had a positive response to surgery (p = 1.000), respectively. There was no difference in the postoperative complication rate (4.9 vs. 3.0 %; p = 0.307). Around 30 % of the study patients were followed up in outpatient clinics for more than once up until a mean period of 6.4 months (95 % CI 5.3-7.6 months). At the last follow-up, the clinical outcome was similar with a 90 % responder rate for both groups (p = 0.834). In total, five patients from the teaching group and eight patients from the non-teaching group required re-do surgery (p = 0.602). CONCLUSIONS: Short- and mid-term outcomes and complication rates following microscopic ACDF(I) were comparable for patients operated on by supervised neurosurgical residents or by senior surgeons. Our data thus indicate that a structured neurosurgical education of operative skills does not lead to worse outcomes or increase the complication rates after ACDF(I). Confirmation of the results by a prospective study is desired.