Effects of Square Stepping Exercise on cognitive, physical, psychological, and group functioning in sedentary older adults: A center-based hybrid trial.

BACKGROUND: The Square Stepping Exercise (SSE) is an exercise training program that integrates physical exercise and cognitive elements and can be conducted in a group setting. The potential of SSE in delaying cognitive decline in older adults is promising. However, the coronavirus pandemic has made it more difficult for older adults worldwide to exercise together in person. To address this issue, this study conducted a wholistic evaluation of the effects of a center-based hybrid SSE trial on cognitive, physical, psychological, and group functioning in sedentary older adults. METHODS: A total of 93 older adults (19 men, 74 women) participated in the study. Fifty-eight participants (9 men, 49 women) completed center-based hybrid SSE sessions over 12 weeks under coronavirus pandemic circumstances, whereas other 35 participants in the control group maintained their current level of daily activities. Cognitive functions focused on executive functions assessed by the Stroop Color-Word Test (inhibition) and the Trail Marking Test (TMT) (set-shifting). Psychological and group functioning were assessed by the Subjective Vitality Scale and the Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire. Physical function was evaluated by measuring gait speeds. A repeated ANOVA was conducted on the measured variables separately for the intervention and control groups to focus on the change of participant's performance over data collection points. RESULTS: Outcomes of the Stroop Color-Word Test and the TMT revealed that the hybrid SSE was highly effective in improving executive function. Stroop performance (correct trials) was significantly improved in the incongruent condition, as well as both TMT-A and -B over the intervention period in the intervention group. The hybrid SSE was also beneficial to improve physical (gait speed at usual pace and at the maximum pace) as well as psychological functioning (subjective vitality). Furthermore, SSE participants reported increased engagement with the SSE task, social communication, and increased bonding and closeness with their group members through the hybrid SSE. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, hybrid SSE was found to be effective in enhancing cognitive, physical, psychological, and group functioning in sedentary older adults. The findings of this study are crucial to provide older adults with a safer and efficient option to exercise.

Timing of Caffeine Ingestion Does Not Improve Three-Point Shooting Accuracy in College Basketball Players.

This study investigated the effects of the timing of caffeine (3 mg/kg body mass) ingestion on three-point shooting accuracy and other performance parameters during a basketball exercise simulation test (BEST). Eighteen college basketball players (mean ± SD: age = 24.4 ± 1.5 years, height = 181.7 ± 9.5 cm, body mass = 80.9 ± 13.2 kg) underwent one familiarization trial and three main conditions in a randomized order: (a) placebo (maltodextrin) and placebo, (b) caffeine and placebo, and (c) placebo and caffeine. Participants ingested either the placebo or caffeine pill 75 and 15 min before performing four quarters of the BEST and a three-point shooting protocol. During each quarter, participants completed 16 rounds of the BEST and ten three-point shots. Vertical jump height, 6 m sprint timing, BEST completion timing, three-point shooting accuracy, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion, blood glucose, blood lactate, and psychological measures pertaining to performance were measured. The BEST completion timing differed among conditions (placebo and placebo = 26.4 ± 2.0 s, caffeine and placebo = 25.8 ± 2.0 s, placebo and caffeine = 25.9 ± 2.1 s; p = .031) but not three-point shooting accuracy (placebo and placebo = 12.33 ± 4.10; caffeine and placebo = 12.61 ± 2.81; placebo and caffeine = 11.67 ± 3.77; p = .648), vertical jump height, or sprint times. Manipulating ingestion timing of caffeine did not improve three-point shooting accuracy, vertical jump height, or 6 m sprint timings, but caffeine can improve performance times during simulated basketball exercise irrespective of ingestion timing.

Weekday breakfast habits and mood at the start of the school morning.

BACKGROUND: Good nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep are important for promoting health. However, it is not well characterized how these lifestyle behaviours are associated with mood at the start of school days. AIM: To identify the weekday health-related behaviours (breakfast intake, physical activity, and sleep) of Singaporean adolescents and explore their associations with mood at the beginning of the school morning. METHODS: 365 adolescents (52.3% boys, 47.7% girls) aged 14-19 years (M = 16.9, SD = 1.3 years) completed a survey set on breakfast habits, physical activity participation, sleep duration, and mood. RESULTS: More than one-third (38.6%) of participants never (15.0%) or irregularly (23.6%) consumed breakfast on weekdays. Adolescents consuming breakfast irregularly reported significantly higher negative mood scores than regular breakfast consumers (p = .002; d = .404). Almost two-thirds (64.1%) of adolescents did <60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on weekdays and reported lower positive morning mood scores than those who ≥60 min of MVPA (p = .014; d = .284). Although most (88.3%) adolescents slept <8 h each night, sleep duration was not related to either positive mood or negative mood. CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that eating breakfast on a regular basis and completing for ≥60 min of weekday MVPA are useful behaviours to start school days in a better mood. Parents and health educators should recognise the importance of establishing these habits and support students by instigating practical approaches so they can achieve a regular breakfast intake and physical activity engagement.

A multiple mediation analysis of the association between asynchronous use of music and running performance.

The purpose of this study was to examine if the effects of asynchronous use of music on running performance are directly and/or indirectly carried through psychological, psychophysical, and psychophysiological benefits. Following a standardized music selection procedure, 20 healthy undergraduate students (10 males, 10 females) completed a 30-min treadmill run at perceived moderate intensity while listening to music (135-140 beats per minute) or under a no-music condition in a randomized order. Participants' affective valence, arousal, perceived exertion, heart rate during the run, and running distance were measured in both trials. A mediation analysis was conducted for 40 data collected from the 20 participants under two conditions (no music; music) with a parallel mediation model in which affective valence, arousal, heart rate, and perceived exertion were specified as mediators. A significant indirect effect of affective valence was observed for running distance. The present finding supports the notion that the relationship between asynchronous use of music and running distance is mediated by psychological benefits.

A school-based intervention program in promoting leisure-time physical activity: trial protocol.

BACKGROUND: Regular participation in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is important to manage obesity. Physical education (PE) is considered to play an important role in promoting lifelong participation in physical activity (PA) because it provides an existing network where cost-effective interventions can be implemented to produce sustainable change in health behavior. However, the association between compulsory school PA (e.g., PE lessons) and body composition levels has received mixed support in the literature. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate whether a school-based intervention targeting salient PA benefits and barriers grounded on the theory of planned behavior would promote young people's participation in MVPA during leisure time and reduce body mass index (BMI) of overweight students. METHODS/DESIGN: A total of 171 students from 3 secondary schools in Singapore underwent the control condition followed by the intervention condition. Both the conditions consisted of PE lessons twice per week over 4 weeks. In the control condition, PE teachers encouraged students to participate in PA during leisure time without providing persuasive message. While in the intervention condition, PE teachers delivered persuasive messages that targeted the salient benefits and barriers associated with PA to the students at the last 5 to 10 min of each PE lesson. PA levels over a week were measured objectively with wrist-mounted GENEActiv Original accelerometers and subjectively with self-reporting questionnaires three times (Baseline, Post 1, and Post 2) in each condition. Student's self-reported PA level was measured using the Leisure-Time Physical Activity Participation Questionnaire and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, and their attitudes, intentions, subjective norms and perceived behavior control towards leisure-time PA were measured with a questionnaire based on the theory of planned behavior. Furthermore, students' intention, determination and willingness to engage in leisure-time PA were compared with the other activity (e.g., doing homework, shopping). DISCUSSION: This study will provide the evidence on the effectiveness of a cost-effective school-based intervention on reducing BMI of overweight students through promoting sustained participation in leisure-time PA. It will also address methodological issues on the gaps between objective and subjective measures of PA. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered with the ISRCTN registry (ISRCTN73786157, 26/10/2017, retrospectively registered).

Effect of Post-Exercise Massage on Passive Muscle Stiffness Measured Using Myotonometry - A Double-Blind Study.

It is commonly believed that massage can reduce muscle stiffness and is desirable for recovery from exercise. However, the effect massage on muscle stiffness following eccentric exercises is currently unknown. This study aimed to examine the effect of post-exercise massage on passive muscle stiffness over a five-day period. A randomised cross-over study design was adopted. After 40 minutes of downhill running, 18 male recreational runners had one leg received a 16-minute massage and the contralateral leg received a 16-minute sham ultrasound treatment. Passive stiffness for four leg muscles (rectus femoris, biceps femoris, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius) was assessed using myotonometry at baseline, immediately post-run, post-treatment, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours post-run. A 2 (treatment) × 7 (time) mixed ANOVA was conducted with a robust procedure on the myotonometry data of each leg muscle to examine the effect of treatment on stiffness. Passive stiffness for all muscles changed over time but no treatment effect was found. Stiffness increased at 24 hours post-run and remained elevated from baseline levels for up to 96 hours across all four muscles. Significant treatment × time interaction was only found in the tibialis anterior but no post-hoc differences were identified. Passive stiffness of major leg muscles increased after a bout of unaccustomed eccentric exercise and remained elevated for up to four days post-exercise. Compared with the placebo treatment, post-exercise massage had no beneficial effect in alleviating altered muscle stiffness in major leg muscles.

Examining discriminant validity issues of the Sport Motivation Scale-6.

The current study was conducted to re-assess the factor structure of the 24-item Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6; Mallett, Kawabata, Newcombe, Otero-Forero, & Jackson, 2007) with an independent sample. A total of 437 participants completed the SMS-6, and their responses were examined with confirmatory factor analysis and recent exploratory structural equation modelling (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2009). A six-factor confirmatory-factor-analysis model did not fit to the sample data adequately. Through examination of the corresponding exploratory-structural-equation-modelling solution, it was found that two items loaded on non-target factors poorly. This result was replicated by a published data set (Mallett, Kawabata, Newcombe, et al., 2007). The modified confirmatory-factor-analysis model with these two items removed fit to the present study's data satisfactorily and all six factors were adequately diferentiated. These results generally validate the SMS-6 responses. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the usefulness of a comparison of confirmatory-factor-analysis and exploratory-structural-equation-modelling solutions for an accurate interpretation of individual parameters.

Developing Nutrition Knowledge and Attitude Measures for Athletes With the Knowledge-Attitude-Behavior Model.

Purpose: Nutrition education programmes are often created to improve dietary intake in athletes. Unfortunately, the inconsistent link between nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior suggests that nutrition knowledge may not be a key influencer of dietary behavior. The Knowledge-Attitude-Behavior (KAB) model has been used in nutrition education although studies that evaluated this model were largely compromised by poorly constructed instruments and methodological discrepancies. Method: To improve understanding of the model, a Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire (NKQ) and Athlete's Perspective on Nutrition (APN) instrument was developed using the theory of planned behavior as its theoretical framework. Validity and reliability were examined for 193 Sports Science students and 11 elite netballers. Content and face validity of the 48-item NKQ was confirmed by expert sport dietitians. Discriminant validity of the NKQ and factorial validity of the APN was established. Both instruments demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and good test-retest reliability. The final instruments were administered to elite athletes in a pilot study to understand the KAB model. Results: Correlation between nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior was significant (r = .811, p = .01). Nutrition knowledge was a positive predictor of netballers' dietary behavior (ß = .8, t(2) = 3.899, p = .005) but attitude was not (ß = -.097, t(2) = -.471, p = .65). Conclusion: Two psychometrically sound instruments developed in this study can be used to measure nutrition knowledge and attitude in an Asian group of athletes. The pilot study with athletes showed that nutrition knowledge predicted dietary behavior.

Interpreting the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 scores: a pilot study of latent class factor analysis.

The present study examined the extent to which scores on the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS-2) could differentiate individuals who frequently experience flow characteristics in physical activity from those who do not. A total of 993 participants completed the Japanese version of the DFS-2. Latent class factor analysis (LCFA), which combines the strengths of both latent class analysis and factor analysis, was conducted on the DFS-2 responses. Six classes were identified through a series of LCFAs and the patterns of the item-average scores for the nine flow attributes were found to be parallel among these classes. The top two and bottom two classes (19.3% and 13.4% of the whole sample) were considered the groups who experience flow characteristics frequently and seldom, respectively. These results indicated that individuals who often experience flow attributes in physical activity could be differentiated from those who do not based on their DFS-2 scores.

Correction: Tan et al. A Systematic Review of the Effects of Caffeine on Basketball Performance Outcomes. Biology 2022, 11, 17.

The authors wish to make a correction to the published version of the paper [...].

Comparison of In Vivo Intradiscal Pressure between Sitting and Standing in Human Lumbar Spine: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Non-specific low back pain (LBP) is highly prevalent today. Disc degeneration could be one of the causes of non-specific LBP, and increased intradiscal pressure (IDP) can potentially induce disc degeneration. The differences in vivo IDP in sitting and standing postures have been studied, but inconsistent results have been reported. The primary objective of this systematic review is to compare the differences in vivo IDP between sitting and standing postures. The secondary objective of this review is to compare effect size estimates between (1) dated and more recent studies and (2) healthy and degenerated intervertebral discs. METHODS: An exhaustive search of six electronic databases for studies published before November 2021 was conducted. Articles measuring in vivo IDP in sitting and standing postures were included. Two independent researchers conducted the screening and data extraction. RESULTS: Ten studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in the systematic review, and seven studies with nine independent groups were included in meta-analyses. The sitting posture induces a significantly higher IDP on the lumbar spine (SMD: 0.87; 95% CI = [0.33, 1.41]) than the standing posture. In studies published after 1990 and subjects with degenerated discs, there are no differences in vivo IDP between both postures. CONCLUSIONS: Sitting causes higher loads on the lumbar spine than standing in the normal discs, but recent studies do not support this conclusion. Furthermore, the degenerated discs showed no difference in IDP in both postures.

Intravenous injection of irradiated tumor cell vaccine carrying oncolytic adenovirus suppressed the growth of multiple lung tumors in a mouse squamous cell carcinoma model.

BACKGROUND: Although cancer therapy using replication-selective oncolytic adenoviruses has been available for many years, its anti-tumor efficacy is suboptimal as a result of low and nonspecific infectivity that depends on coxsackie adenovirus receptor expression of the target cancer and normal cells, and generation of an anti-adenovirus neutralizing antibody. In addition, concerns of triggering a severe innate immune response against the adenovirus limit the systemic administration. We developed the carrier cell-based oncolytic virus system (CBOVS) using irradiated tumor cells as carrier cells and concealing the adenovirus (Ad-IAI.3B) inside to improve the specific infectivity. We investigated the anti-tumor effect of CBOVS in a multiple lung tumor mouse model. METHODS: The ability of CBOVS to infect Ad-IAI.3B to the target cancer cells was examined in vitro in the presence of anti-adenovirus antibodies. To evaluate the systemic effect of CBOVS, we intravenously injected CBOVS into mice with lung tumors (KLN205 cell lines). RESULTS: CBOVS enhanced the infectivity of Ad-IAI.3B to tumor cells in the presence of anti-adenovirus antibodies in vitro. Intravenous injections of CBOVS produced an accumulation of the adenovirus in the lung-bearing tumors and produced a strong anti-tumor effect in vivo. Furthermore, lymphocytes collected from the CBOVS-treated mice induced an increase in cytokines related to the Th1 response (interferon-γ, interleukin-12) by pulsing with KLN205. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that CBOVS could protect adenoviruses from neutralizing antibodies and systemically deliver them to lung tumors. Furthermore, CBOVS appears to have potential as a tumor cell vaccine that activates cytotoxic immunity against cancer cells.

Correlation of overexpression of efflux pump genes with antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli Strains clinically isolated from urinary tract infection patients.

Escherichia coli is one of the most common pathogens in urinary tract infections (UTIs), and antibiotic resistance in E. coli is becoming a serious problem in treating UTI. Efflux system overexpression is reported to contribute to E. coli resistance to several antibiotics. This study investigated the correlation of antibiotic susceptibilities with the overexpression of the efflux pump genes such as marA, yhiU, yhiV, and mdfA and with risk factors for antibiotic resistance in E. coli isolated from UTI patients. We examined the expression level of efflux pump genes using quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR). We also tested the in vitro susceptibilities to 12 kinds of antibiotics in 64 clinical strains of E. coli isolated from UTI patients. By multivariate analyses we revealed significant relationships between the overexpression of (i) marA and MICs of cefepime (FEP) and nalidixic acid (NAL), (ii) yhiV and MICs of minocycline (MIN), and (iii) mdfA and MICs of sitafloxacin (STX). In our investigation of the efflux pump genes, risk factors such as gender and the previous use of fluoroquinolones correlated with the overexpression of marA, and indwelling catheter use correlated with the overexpression of mdfA. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the increased expression of efflux pump genes such as marA and mdfA can lead to fluoroquinolone resistance in E. coli. These results contribute to our knowledge of the efflux system and raise the possibility of developing new agents, such as efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs), to antibiotic-resistant E. coli.

Mechanisms of and risk factors for fluoroquinolone resistance in clinical Enterococcus faecalis isolates from patients with urinary tract infections.

We examined Enterococcus faecalis strains clinically isolated from 100 patients with urinary tract infections (UTIs) for their susceptibility to levofloxacin (LVX) by measuring the MIC and investigated amino acid mutations by direct DNA sequencing, which were then correlated with LVX resistance. Next, we studied risk factors for LVX resistance, such as age, gender, and previous fluoroquinolone use, and investigated the statistical correlation of these risk factors with each amino acid mutation and LVX resistance. Of the 100 isolates tested, 14 isolates showed LVX resistance and all of these isolates had amino acid mutations. We demonstrated that 2 out of 4 mutations (Ser83-to-Ile in gyrA and Ser80-to-Ile in parC) had a significant correlation with LVX resistance. There was a significant relationship between isolates with 2 or 3 amino acid mutations and LVX resistance. In addition, we found a significant correlation between the previous use of fluoroquinolones and LVX resistance or the presence of mutations and also demonstrated that previous use of other types of antibiotics was significantly related to the presence of mutations by multivariate analysis. In conclusion, we found significant correlation between amino acid mutations in E. faecalis, LVX resistance, and risk factors such as previous use of fluoroquinolones.

Risk factors and mechanisms of fluoroquinolone resistance in 156 Escherichia coli strains clinically isolated from urinary tract infections.

As fluoroquinolone-resistant strains of Escherichia coli emerge, several risk factors for fluoroquinolone resistance have become evident, such as amino acid mutations in the quinolone resistance determining regions (QRDR) of gyrA and parC and previous use of fluoroquinolone. This study investigated risk factors for fluoroquinolone resistance and amino acid mutation in the QRDR in E. coli. We investigated the statistical correlation between each amino acid mutation and resistance to levofloxacin. We examined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of levofloxacin and the amino acid mutations of gyrA and parC by direct DNA sequence in E. coli clinically isolated from urinary tract infection (UTI) patients. We investigated risk factors for levofloxacin resistance, such as age, sex, and previous use of fluoroquinolone. We found a significant correlation between the number of mutations and resistance to levofloxacin (p < 0.001) and between the presence of underlying urinary tract disease and the presence of mutations (p = 0.004) by multivariate analyses. Three mutations in QRDR were demonstrated to be significantly correlated with levofloxacin resistance. In conclusion, these findings contribute to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms and risk factors for fluoroquinolone resistance.

Exploring the Dimensions of Movement-Specific Reinvestment From Personal Characteristics Perspectives.

The purposes of the present study were three-fold: to examine (a) if the movement-specific reinvestment responses should be represented as two dimensional constructs, (b) whether dichotomization of the movement-specific reinvestment responses are appropriate, and (c) how the two dimensions are associated with relevant psychological concepts. To conduct a comparative examination of the MSRS structure in two Asian samples, participants were 236 Japanese university students (136 men, 100 women; M age = 18.0, SD = 1.6) and 328 Singaporeans (167 men, 161 women; M age = 21.8, SD = 1.8). After examining the factor structure of the movement-specific reinvestment responses for the first purpose, latent class factor analysis was conducted for both samples for the second purpose. For the third purpose, correlation analysis and mediation analysis were conducted for a part of the Singaporean sample. Through a series of latent class factor analysis, four and three classes were identified for the Japanese and Singaporean samples, respectively. For both samples, the patterns of the item-average scores for the two movement-specific reinvestment dimensions were parallel among the classes. Conscious Motor Processing was positively associated with mental toughness, intrinsic regulation, integrated regulation, mastery-approach and task goal orientations, and dispositional flow, whereas Movement Self-Consciousness was positively related with stress and mastery-avoidance goal orientation. The findings of the study supported (a) the two-dimensional representation of the movement-specific reinvestment responses, but did not fully support (b) the practice of dichotomization of the movement-specific reinvestment responses, and indicated that (c) at the trait level, Conscious Motor Processing and Movement Self-Consciousness were associated with positive and negative psychological constructs, respectively.

Evolving the validity of a mental toughness measure: Refined versions of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48.

The Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (MTQ48) is a 48-item self-report instrument to measure one's level of mental toughness. Despite its wide popularity in psychological studies, the questionnaire has been criticized due to its factorial validity. The present study aimed to re-assess the factorial validity of the instrument and propose alternative models to provide researchers with theoretically and practically useful instruments to measure mental toughness. Two studies were conducted using large samples of university students (Study 1: n = 2186; Study 2: n = 3209). In Study 1, none of one-, four- and six-factor models with 48 items satisfactorily fit the data set. Instead, two refined 18- and 6-item versions of the questionnaire, covering six aspects of mental toughness, were proposed: the Short MTQ and Very Short MTQ. Both measures demonstrated excellent fit to the data. These results were replicated with a larger independent sample in Study 2. With the Short MTQ, it is possible to represent mental toughness as a multidimensional construct consisting of a global mental toughness factor and six specific factors. The Very Short MTQ is a practical tool for occasions where constraints prevent use of the Short MTQ. The refined questionnaires are promising options to measure and understand individuals' mental toughness with the MTQ.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Caffeine on Basketball Performance Outcomes.

Caffeine is an ergogenic aid in many sports, including basketball. This systematic review examines the effects of caffeine on basketball-related skill tasks along with physical aspects of performance deemed important for the game. A systematic search was conducted across three databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) to identify randomized-controlled trials which examined the effect of caffeine on basketball performance outcomes including: free-throw, 3-point shooting accuracy, dribbling speed, vertical jump height, and linear and repeated sprints. Forty-six articles were identified of which 10 met the inclusion criteria. Improvements in vertical jump were identified in four of five studies, agility in two of four studies, and in linear and repeated sprints in two of three studies. No deterioration in basketball skills performance was observed in any studies. It is suggested that caffeine is useful for basketball players to improve the physical aspects of their game-play performance but there is little evidence of any change in skill-based performance at present. Further research should clarify the effects of caffeine on basketball performance in women and the role of individual genetic variation on caffeine metabolism. Basketball players and coaches should be aware of the properties of caffeine before ingesting it as an ergogenic supplement.

Breakfast and Exercise Improve Academic and Cognitive Performance in Adolescents.

This study examined the combined effects of breakfast and exercise on short-term academic and cognitive performance in adolescents. Eighty-two adolescents (64 female), aged 14-19 years, were randomized to four groups over a 4-hour morning: (i) a group who fasted and were sedentary (F-S); (ii) a group who ate breakfast but were sedentary (B-S); (iii) a group who fasted but completed a 30-min exercise bout (F-E); and (iv) a group who ate breakfast and completed a 30-min exercise bout (B-E). Individuals completed academic and cognitive tests over the morning. Adolescents in B-E significantly improved their mathematics score (B-E: 15.2% improvement on correct answers, vs. F-S: 6.7% improvement on correct answers; p = 0.014) and computation time for correct answers (B-E: 16.7% improvement, vs. F-S: 7.4% improvement; p = 0.004) over the morning compared with the F-S group. The B-E group had faster reaction times for congruent, incongruent and control trials of the Stroop Color-Word Task compared with F-S mid-morning (all p < 0.05). Morning breakfast and exercise combine to improve short-term mathematical task performance and speed in adolescents.

Acute effects of Square Stepping Exercise on cognitive and social functions in sedentary young adults: a home-based online trial.

BACKGROUND: The Square Stepping Exercise (SSE) is an exercise training program incorporating cognitive and physical exercise components, which was originally developed for older adults to reduce falling risks. SSE's potential in delaying cognitive decline in older adults seems to be promising. However, there is scarce research on the SSE program with young adults. Furthermore, the outbreak of coronavirus disease has imposed people to change their lifestyle and behaviors, including exercise behaviors. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of a home-based online SSE trial on cognitive and social functions in sedentary young adults. METHODS: A total of 18 young adults (6 males, 12 females) participated in the present study. They completed two exercise conditions (SSE and active control exercise), consisting of 3 sessions per week, over 2 weeks. A 2 times (pre vs. post) × 2 conditions (SSE vs. active control) repeated-measures ANCOVA was conducted on the score of the Modified Card Sorting Task with age and education year as covariates. A one-way repeated-measures MANOVA was performed on the subscale scores of the Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire to examine the effects of the exercise conditions (SSE vs. active control) on group cohesion. RESULTS: SSE was found effective to improve executive function such as abstract reasoning, mental flexibility, and problem-solving skills. Furthermore, participants' perceptions of social interaction with their group, and closeness and bonding existing in their group were significantly higher in the SSE condition than the active control condition. CONCLUSIONS: In the present study, SSE was conducted online and found to be effective to enhance executive function and group cohesion in sedentary young adults. These novel approach and findings are the strengths of the present study. People aged 60 years and over are more vulnerable to the coronavirus and at higher risk of developing serious illness. Given the coronavirus pandemic circumstances, it is worthwhile to explore the possibility of the online SSE approach to older adults in future research.