Holarctic Species in the Pluteus podospileus Clade: Description of Six New Species and Reassessment of Old Names.

We studied the taxonomy of Pluteus podospileus and similar species using morphological and molecular (nrITS, TEF1-α) data, including a detailed study of the type collections of P. inflatus var. alneus, Pluteus minutissimus f. major, and P. granulatus var. tenellus. Within the P. podospileus complex, we phylogenetically confirmed six species in Europe, five in Asia, and eight in North America. Based on our results, we recognize P. seticeps as a separate species occurring in North America, while P. podospileus is limited to Eurasia. We describe six new species and a new variety: P. absconditus, P. fuscodiscus, P. gausapatus, P. inexpectatus, P. millsii, and P. notabilis and its variety, P. notabilis var. insignis. We elevate Pluteus seticeps var. cystidiosus to species rank as Pluteus cystidiosus. Based on the holotype of P. inflatus var. alneus, collections of P. inflatus identified by Velenovský, and several modern collections, we resurrect the name P. inflatus. Based on molecular analyses of syntypes of Pluteus minutissimus f. major and a holotype of Pluteus granulatus var. tenellus, we synonymize them under P. inflatus. We also increase our knowledge about the morphology and distribution of P. cutefractus.

Pluteus insidiosus Complex, Four New Species Described and Pluteus reisneri Resurrected.

We studied the taxonomy of Pluteus insidiosus and similar species using morphological and molecular (nrITS, TEF1-α) data, including a detailed study of the type collection of P. insidiosus. Based on our results, we recognize five species in this group: P. insidiosus sensu stricto and four other taxa: P. assimilatus; P. farensis; P. flavostipitatus; and P. pseudoinsidiosus; described here as new. All these taxa are distinct from each other based on molecular data, but some of them are semi-cryptic based on morphology and co-occur in the Palaearctic region. An additional molecular lineage, phylogenetically separates from the P. insidiosus complex, but with many morphological similarities, was recognized in the molecular phylogenies. Based on the revision of available type collections, the name Pluteus reisneri Velen., was adopted for this Clade. Pluteus reisneri was validly published in 1921, but it has barely been used since its original description. A modern epitype, with molecular data, was selected for P. reisneri.

Holarctic Species in the Pluteus romellii Clade. Five New Species Described and Old Names Reassessed.

We studied the taxonomy of Pluteus romellii, and morphologically similar Holarctic species in the /romellii clade of section Celluloderma, using morphological and molecular data (nrITS, TEF1-α). Pluteus romellii is lectotypified and epitypified and accepted as an exclusively Eurasian species. Pluteus lutescens and P. pallescens are considered synonyms of P. romellii. Pluteus fulvibadius is accepted as a related, but separate, North American species. Five species in the /romellii clade are described as new to science: two from North America (P. austrofulvus and P. parvisporus), one from Asia (P. parvicarpus), one from Europe (P. siccus), and one widely distributed across the Holarctic region (P. vellingae). Basidioma size, pileus color, lamellae color, basidiospore size, hymenial cystidia shape and size, habitat and geographical distribution help separate the species described here, but in some instances only molecular data allows for confident identification. The current status of P. californicus, P. melleipes, P. romellii var. luteoalbus, P. splendidus, P. sternbergii and P.sulphureus is discussed.

Nutritional Composition and Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and Cytotoxic Activities of the Scaly Tooth Wild Mushroom, Sarcodon squamosus (Agaricomycetes), from Turkey.

Among natural products, mushrooms are well known for their nutritional value and health-improving features. In this study, the total phenolic content, total oxidant status, total antioxidant capacity, lipid hydroperoxides, and total free sulfhydryl levels of wild edible mushroom Sarcodon squamosus were investigated. The agar disc diffusion method was applied to test the antimicrobial effect of S. squamosus methanolic extract against Gram-positive bacteria (Micrococcus luteus NCIBM, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633), Gram-negative bacteria (Proteus vulgaris RSKK 96026, Escherichia coli ATCC 35218, and Yersinia enterocolitica RSKK 1501), and yeast (Candida albicans ATCC 10231). According to the obtained results, S. squamosus methanolic extract had strong antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Antiproliferative effects of the time and dose of S. squamosus extract on human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells were determined with the XTT assay. The anti-invasive and apoptotic potential of the extract was evaluated with the Matrigel invasion chamber and TUNEL assays, respectively. S. squamosus extract also showed antiproliferative and anti-invasive activity and induced apoptosis in HepG2 hepato-cellular carcinoma cells in vitro. In conclusion, S. squamosus can be considered as both a functional food and a source of nutraceuticals.

Volvariella turcica, a new species from Turkey, and a multigene phylogeny of Volvariella.

A new species of Volvariella, collected from Aydin Province on the coast of the Aegean Sea in southwestern Turkey, is described as Volvariella turcica, sp. nov., based on morphology and multigene molecular analysis of three nuc rDNA gene regions: internal transcribed spacer ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS), 28S, and 18S. The new species was found in forests dominated by Pinus brutia and Quercus coccifera and mainly characterized by small basidiomata with a white pileus covered with pale ochre center and an ochre-discoloring volva, small basidiospores, lageniform pleurocystidia, balloon-shaped to clavate cheilocystidia, and stipitipellis hairs that are cylindrical or cylindrical-tortuous with subcapitate or lobe-like projections. A comprehensive description, illustrations, and line drawings are provided, and comparison with morphologically similar and phylogenetically related species is discussed.

Potential Anticancer Activity of the Parasol Mushroom, Macrolepiota procera (Agaricomycetes), against the A549 Human Lung Cancer Cell Line.

Mushrooms comprise an unlimited source of active compounds that have beneficial health effects without known negative side effects and can potentially be used as important therapeutic products against cancer, which is the leading cause of death worldwide. In this study we investigated the cytotoxic, antiproliferative, apoptotic, and anti-invasion effects of Macrolepiota procera, which is valued as an edible and medicinal mushroom, on A549 lung cancer cells. The cytotoxic effect of the M. procera extract was determined by using the XTT method. Total RNA was isolated from cells with TRI Reagent to determine the apoptotic effect of the extract, after which complementary DNA was synthesized. Expression profiles of the target genes were determined by quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, and protein changes were determined by using Western blotting. We used the TUNEL assay to evaluate the apoptotic effects of the M. procera extract. Effects of M. procera on cell invasion were investigated by using a Matrigel chamber assay. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration of the M. procera extract was determined to be 2 mg/mL against A549 lung cancer cells at 72 hours. According to our results, expression of Cyclin Dl, CDK4, CDK6, Bcl-2, Akt, and NOXA genes significantly decreased and that of Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, PTEN, PUMA, p21, and p53 increased in cells from the dose group compared with their expression in control cells. According to the results of the TUNEL assay, 28 ± 3.6% of cells were apoptotic in the dose group. The M. procera extract also reduced invasion in A549 cancer cells. The results suggest that M. procera has an antiproliferative effect in a dose- and time-dependent manner.

Assessment of the antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the wild edible mushroom Agaricus lanipes (F.H. Møller & Jul. Schäff.) Hlavácek.

The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of the wild edible mushroom Agaricus lanipes, and also to investigate its cytotoxicity and potential and possible apoptotic effect against the A549 lung cancer cell line in in vitro conditions. Total antioxidant capacity, total phenolic content, total oxidant status, total antioxidant status, lipid hydroperoxides, and total free -SH levels of A. lanipes were found to be 4.55 mg T/g, 14.6 mg GA equivalent/g, 3.10 mg H2O2 equivalent/g, 2.25 mg H2O2 equivalent/g, and 1.90 µmol/g, respectively. The methanolic extract of A. lanipes had relatively strong antimicrobial activity against seven tested microorganism strains. It also had high anti-proliferative potency and strong pro-apoptotic effects, and this mushroom used as a daily nutrient could be a source for new drug developments and treatment in cancer therapies, and could be a guide for studies in this area.

Extract of Calvatia gigantea inhibits proliferation of A549 human lung cancer cells.

In this study, in order to investigate the anticancer mechanism of Calvatia gigantea extract, edible mushroom species, which belong to Lycoperdaceae family, changes of CCND1, CCND2, CDK4, p21, Akt, Bax, Bcl-2, p53, caspase-3 and caspase-9 were evaluated in A549 lung cancer cells. Cytotoxic effect of C. gigantea extract was evaluated by using XTT (2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5 carboxanilide). The C. gigantea extract was treated in a time and dose dependent manner within the range 25 µg/ml-2 mg/ml to determine the IC50 dose. IC50 dose for C. gigantea extract was detected as 500 µg/ml for 72 h. According to expression results, while CCND1, CCND2, CDK4, Akt and Bcl-2 expression clearly decreased, Bax, p53, caspase-3 and caspase-9 expression clearly increased in the dose group cells (A549 cells treated with 500 µg/ml dose of C. gigantea extract for 72 h). However, there was no change in p21 expression. C. gigantea extract induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by decreasing the CCND1, CCND2, CDK4, Akt and Bcl-2 expression and by increasing Bax, p53, caspase-3 and caspase-9 expression in A549 cells. Mushrooms are eukaryotic organisms heavily used because of their supposedly anticancer effect. Many mushroom species have been used for medical purposes, as a result of also having many effects such as antibiotic, antiviral and anticancer effects. It is thought that the C. gigantea extract may be a significant agent for treatment of lung cancer as a single agent or in combination with other drugs.