Phage Display Screening of Bovine Antibodies to Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus and Their Application in a Competitive ELISA for Serodiagnosis.

For serodiagnosis of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), monoclonal antibody (MAb)-based competitive ELISA (cELISA) is commonly used since it allows simple and reproducible detection of antibody response to FMDV. However, the use of mouse-origin MAb as a detection reagent is questionable, as antibody responses to FMDV in mice may differ in epitope structure and preference from those in natural hosts such as cattle and pigs. To take advantage of natural host-derived antibodies, a phage-displayed scFv library was constructed from FMDV-immune cattle and subjected to two separate pannings against inactivated FMDV type O and A. Subsequent ELISA screening revealed high-affinity scFv antibodies specific to a serotype (O or A) as well as those with pan-serotype specificity. When BvO17, an scFv antibody specific to FMDV type O, was tested as a detection reagent in cELISA, it successfully detected FMDV type O antibodies for both serum samples from vaccinated cattle and virus-challenged pigs with even higher sensitivity than a mouse MAb-based commercial FMDV type O antibody detection kit. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using natural host-derived antibodies such as bovine scFv instead of mouse MAb in cELISA for serological detection of antibody response to FMDV in the susceptible animals.

Inhibition of 4-1BBL-regulated TLR response in macrophages ameliorates endotoxin-induced sepsis in mice.

Activation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling rapidly induces the expression of inflammatory genes, which is persistent for a defined period of time. However, uncontrolled and excessive inflammation may lead to the development of diseases. 4-1BB ligand (4-1BBL) plays an essential role in sustaining the expression of inflammatory cytokines by interacting with TLRs during macrophage activation. Here, we show that inhibition of 4-1BBL signaling reduced the inflammatory responses in macrophages and ameliorated endotoxin-induced sepsis in mice. A 4-1BB-Fc fusion protein significantly reduced TNF production in macrophages by blocking the oligomerization of TLR4 and 4-1BBL. Administration of 4-1BB-Fc suppressed LPS-induced sepsis by reducing TNF production, and the coadministration of anti-TNF and 4-1BB-Fc provided better protection against LPS-induced sepsis. Taken together, these observations suggest that inhibition of the TLR/4-1BBL complex formation may be highly efficient in protecting against continued inflammation, and that 4-1BB-Fc could be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

S2 Peptide-Conjugated SARS-CoV-2 Virus-like Particles Provide Broad Protection against SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern.

Approved COVID-19 vaccines primarily induce neutralizing antibodies targeting the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein. However, the emergence of variants of concern with RBD mutations poses challenges to vaccine efficacy. This study aimed to design a next-generation vaccine that provides broader protection against diverse coronaviruses, focusing on glycan-free S2 peptides as vaccine candidates to overcome the low immunogenicity of the S2 domain due to the N-linked glycans on the S antigen stalk, which can mask S2 antibody responses. Glycan-free S2 peptides were synthesized and attached to SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particles (VLPs) lacking the S antigen. Humoral and cellular immune responses were analyzed after the second booster immunization in BALB/c mice. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed the reactivity of sera against SARS-CoV-2 variants, and pseudovirus neutralization assay confirmed neutralizing activities. Among the S2 peptide-conjugated VLPs, the S2.3 (N1135-K1157) and S2.5 (A1174-L1193) peptide-VLP conjugates effectively induced S2-specific serum immunoglobulins. These antisera showed high reactivity against SARS-CoV-2 variant S proteins and effectively inhibited pseudoviral infections. S2 peptide-conjugated VLPs activated SARS-CoV-2 VLP-specific T-cells. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccine incorporating conserved S2 peptides and CoV-2 VLPs shows promise as a universal vaccine capable of generating neutralizing antibodies and T-cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Conversion of Host Cell Receptor into Virus Destructor by Immunodisc to Neutralize Diverse SARS-CoV-2 Variants.

The decreasing efficacy of antiviral drugs due to viral mutations highlights the challenge of developing a single agent targeting multiple strains. Using host cell viral receptors as competitive inhibitors is promising, but their low potency and membrane-bound nature have limited this strategy. In this study, the authors show that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in a planar membrane patch can effectively neutralize all tested severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic. The ACE2-incorporated membrane patch implemented using nanodiscs replicated the spike-mediated membrane fusion process outside the host cell, resulting in virus lysis, extracellular RNA release, and potent antiviral activity. While neutralizing antibodies became ineffective as the SARS-CoV-2 evolved to better penetrate host cells the ACE2-incorporated nanodiscs became more potent, highlighting the advantages of using receptor-incorporated nanodiscs for antiviral purposes. ACE2-incorporated immunodisc, an Fc fusion nanodisc developed in this study, completely protected humanized mice infected with SARS-CoV-2 after prolonged retention in the airways. This study demonstrates that the incorporation of viral receptors into immunodisc transforms the entry gate into a potent virucide for all current and future variants, a concept that can be extended to different viruses.

Identification of broad-spectrum neutralizing antibodies against influenza A virus and evaluation of their prophylactic efficacy in mice.

Influenza A virus continuously infects humans and the antigenic shifts of this respiratory virus enable it to cross the species barrier, threatening public health with the risk of pandemics. Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) that target the antigenic surface glycoprotein, hemagglutinin (HA), of influenza A virus protect against various subtypes of the virus. Here, we screened a human scFv library, through phage display and panning against recombinant HA proteins, to discover human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that are broadly active. Consequently, two human mAbs, named G1 and G2, were identified, which target the HA proteins of the H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes, respectively. G1 was shown to have broad binding ability to different HA subtypes of group 1. By contrast, G2 had higher binding affinity but sensed exclusively H3 subtype-derived HAs. In a cell culture-based virus-neutralizing assay, both G1 and G2 efficiently suppressed infection of the parental influenza A viruses of H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes. Mode-of-action studies showed that the G1 antibody blocked HA2-mediated membrane fusion. Meanwhile, G2 inhibited HA1-mediated viral attachment to host cells. It is noteworthy that both antibodies elicited antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) activities by recruiting FcγRIIIA-expressing effector cells. In mouse challenge models, single-shot, intraperitoneal administration of chimeric G1 and G2 antibodies with the mouse IgG constant region completely protected mice from viral infections at doses above 10 and 1 mg/kg, respectively. The newly identified bnAbs, G1 and G2, could provide insight into the development of broad-spectrum antivirals against future pandemic influenza A virus involving group 1- or H3-subtyped strains.

Novel S2 subunit-specific antibody with broad neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

Introduction: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), had a major impact on both the global health and economy. Numerous virus-neutralizing antibodies were developed against the S1 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein to block viral binding to host cells and were authorized for control of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, frequent mutations in the S1 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 enabled the emergence of immune evasive variants. To address these challenges, broadly neutralizing antibodies targeting the relatively conserved S2 subunit and its epitopes have been investigated as antibody therapeutics and universal vaccines. Methods: We initiated this study by immunizing BALB/c mice with ß-propiolactone-inactivated SARS-CoV-2 (IAV) to generate B-cell hybridomas. These hybridomas were subsequently screened using HEK293T cells expressing the S2-ECD domain. Hybridomas that produced anti-S2 antibodies were selected, and we conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the potential of these anti-S2 antibodies as antiviral agents and versatile tools for research and diagnostics. Results: In this study, we present a novel S2-specific antibody, 4A5, isolated from BALB/c mice immunized with inactivated SARS-CoV-2. 4A5 exhibited specific affinity to SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunits compared with those of other ß-CoVs. 4A5 bound to epitope segment F1109-V1133 between the heptad-repeat1 (HR1) and the stem-helix (SH) region. The 4A5 epitope is highly conserved in SARS-CoV-2 variants, with a significant conformational feature in both pre- and postfusion S proteins. Notably, 4A5 exhibited broad neutralizing activity against variants and triggered Fc-enhanced antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis. Discussion: These findings offer a promising avenue for novel antibody therapeutics and insights for next-generation vaccine design. The identification of 4A5, with its unique binding properties and broad neutralizing capacity, offers a potential solution to the challenge posed by SARS-CoV-2 variants and highlights the importance of targeting the conserved S2 subunit in combating the COVID-19.

An efficient strategy for cell-based antibody library selection using an integrated vector system.

BACKGROUND: Cell panning of phage-displayed antibody library is a powerful tool for the development of therapeutic and imaging agents since disease-related cell surface proteins in native complex conformation can be directly targeted. Here, we employed a strategy taking advantage of an integrated vector system which allows rapid conversion of scFv-displaying phage into scFv-Fc format for efficient cell-based scFv library selection on a tetraspanin protein, CD9. RESULTS: A mouse scFv library constructed by using a phagemid vector, pDR-D1 was subjected to cell panning against stable CD9 transfectant, and the scFv repertoire from the enriched phage pool was directly transferred to a mammalian cassette vector, pDR-OriP-Fc1. The resulting constructs enabled transient expression of enough amounts of scFv-Fcs in HEK293E cells, and flow cytometric screening of binders for CD9 transfectant could be performed simply by using the culture supernatants. All three clones selected from the screening showed correct CD9-specificity. They could immunoprecipitate CD9 molecules out of the transfectant cell lysate and correctly stain endogenous CD9 expression on cancer cell membrane. Furthermore, competition assay with a known anti-CD9 monoclonal antibody (mAb) suggested that the binding epitopes of some of them overlap with that of the mAb which resides within the large extracellular loop of CD9. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that scFv-Fc from mammalian transient expression can be chosen as a reliable format for rapid screening and validation in cell-based scFv library selection, and the strategy described here will be applicable to efficient discovery of antibodies to diverse cell-surface targets.

Nanodisc-Mediated Conversion of Virustatic Antiviral Antibody to Disrupt Virus Envelope in Infected Cells.

Many antibody-based antivirals, including broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) against various influenza virus strains, suffer from limited potency. A booster of the antiviral activity of an antibody is expected to facilitate development of antiviral therapeutics. In this study, a nanodisc (ND), a discoidal lipid bilayer encircled by membrane scaffold proteins, is engineered to provide virucidal properties to antibodies, thereby augmenting their antiviral activity. NDs carrying the Fc-binding peptide sequence form an antibody-ND complex (ANC), which can co-endocytose into cells infected with influenza virus. ANC efficiently inhibits endosome escape of viral RNA by dual complimentary mode of action. While the antibody moiety in an ANC inhibits hemagglutinin-mediated membrane fusion, its ND moiety destroys the viral envelope using free hemagglutinins that are not captured by antibodies. Providing virus-infected host cells with the ability to self-eliminate by the synergistic effect of ANC components dramatically amplifies the antiviral efficacy of a bnAb against influenza virus. When the efficacy of ANC is assessed in mouse models, administration of ANCs dramatically reduces morbidity and mortality compared to bnAb alone. This study is the first to demonstrate the novel nanoparticle ANC and its role in combating viral infections, suggesting that ANC is a versatile platform applicable to various viruses.

Up-regulation and clinical significance of serine protease kallikrein 6 in colon cancer.

BACKGROUND: Kallikrein-related peptidase 6 (KLK6) encodes a trypsin-like serine protease that is up-regulated in several cancers, although the putative functions of KLK6 in cancer have not been elucidated. In the current study, overexpression of KLK6 was identified in colon cancer, and the possibility that KLK6 may be a suitable candidate as a tumor marker was examined. METHODS: Messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript levels and protein up-regulation of KLK6 in colon cancer tissues was examined using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunohistochemistry, and clinicopathologic analyses. Cell proliferation, invasiveness, and antiapoptotic activity were determined in colon cancer cells that were transfected with small-interfering RNA (siRNA) of KLK6. RESULTS: KLK6 mRNA was up-regulated significantly in tumor tissues compared with nontumor regions. KLK6 protein was strongly expressed in adenocarcinomas but was not expressed in normal mucosa or in premalignant dysplastic lesions. Sera from patients with colon cancer revealed an increase in KLK6 secretion (0.25 µg/mL; P = .031) compared with noncancer cells (0.19 µg/mL). Clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical studies of 143 patients with colon cancer revealed a significant correlation between KLK6 expression and Dukes disease stage (P = .005). High KLK6 expression was associated significantly with shorter overall (P = .001) and recurrence-free survival (P = .001). The rates of proliferation and invasiveness were decreased by 50% in cells that were transfected with KLK6 siRNA. The overexpression of KLK6 led to decreased activity of the E-cadherin promoter. CONCLUSIONS: KLK6 was up-regulated significantly in tissues and sera from patients with colon cancer and was associated closely with a poor prognosis, suggesting that KLK6 may be used as a potential biomarker and a therapeutic target for colon cancer.

An NIR dual-emitting/absorbing inorganic compact pair: A self-calibrating LRET system for homogeneous virus detection.

Many conventional optical biosensing systems use a single responsive signal in the visible light region. This limits their practical applications, as the signal can be readily perturbed by various external environmental factors. Herein, a near-infrared (NIR)-based self-calibrating luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) system was developed for background-free detection of analytes in homogeneous sandwich-immunoassays. The inorganic LRET pair was comprised of NIR dual-emitting lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (LnNPs) as donors and NIR-absorbing LnNPs as acceptors, which showed a narrow absorption peak (800 nm) and long-term stability, enabling stable LRET with a built-in self-calibrating signal. Screened single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) were used as target avian influenza virus (AIV)-binding antibodies to increase the LRET efficiency in sandwich-immunoassays. The compact sensor platform successfully detected AIV nucleoproteins with a 0.38 pM limit of detection in buffer solution and 64 clinical samples. Hence, inorganic LnNP pairs may be effective for self-calibrating LRET systems in the background-free NIR region.

Effective Diagnosis of Foot-And-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) Serotypes O and A Based on Optical and Electrochemical Dual-Modal Detection.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a highly contagious disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals. The traditional diagnostic methods for FMDV have several drawbacks such as cross-reactivity, low sensitivity, and low selectivity. To overcome these drawbacks, we present an optical and electrochemical dual-modal approach for the specific detection of FMDV serotypes O and A by utilizing a magnetic nanoparticle labeling technique with resorufin ß-d-glucopyranoside (res-ß-glc) and ß-glucosidase (ß-glc), without the use of typical lateral flow assay or polymerase chain reaction. FMDV serotypes O and A were reacted with pan-FMDV antibodies that recognize all seven FMDV serotypes (O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2, and SAT 3). The antigen-antibody complex was then immobilized on magnetic nanoparticles and reacted with ß-glc-conjugated FMDV type O or type A antibodies. Subsequently, the addition of res-ß-glc resulted in the release of fluorescent resorufin and glucose owing to catalytic hydrolysis by ß-glc. The detection limit of fluorescent signals using a fluorescence spectrophotometer was estimated to be log(6.7) and log(5.9) copies/mL for FMDV type O and A, respectively, while that of electrochemical signals using a glucometer was estimated to be log(6.9) and log(6.1) copies/mL for FMDV type O and A, respectively. Compared with a commercially available lateral flow assay diagnostic kit for immunochromatographic detection of FMDV type O and A, this dual-modal detection platform offers approximately four-fold greater sensitivity. This highly sensitive and accurate dual-modal detection method can be used for effective disease diagnosis and treatment, and will find application in the early-stage diagnosis of viral diseases and next-generation diagnostic platforms.

In Vitro and In Vivo Antiviral Activity of Nylidrin by Targeting the Hemagglutinin 2-Mediated Membrane Fusion of Influenza A Virus.

Influenza A virus, one of the major human respiratory pathogens, is responsible for annual seasonal endemics and unpredictable periodic pandemics. Despite the clinical availability of vaccines and antivirals, the antigenic diversity and drug resistance of this virus makes it a persistent threat to public health, underlying the need for the development of novel antivirals. In a cell culture-based high-throughput screen, a ß2-adrenergic receptor agonist, nylidrin, was identified as an antiviral compound against influenza A virus. The molecule was effective against multiple isolates of subtype H1N1, but had limited activity against subtype H3N2, depending on the strain. By examining the antiviral activity of its chemical analogues, we found that ifenprodil and clenbuterol also had reliable inhibitory effects against A/H1N1 strains. Field-based pharmacophore modeling with comparisons of active and inactive compounds revealed the importance of positive and negative electrostatic patterns of phenyl aminoethanol derivatives. Time-of-addition experiments and visualization of the intracellular localization of nucleoprotein NP demonstrated that an early step of the virus life cycle was suppressed by nylidrin. Ultimately, we discovered that nylidrin targets hemagglutinin 2 (HA2)-mediated membrane fusion by blocking conformational change of HA at acidic pH. In a mouse model, preincubation of a mouse-adapted influenza A virus (H1N1) with nylidrin completely blocked intranasal viral infection. The present study suggests that nylidrin could provide a core chemical skeleton for the development of a direct-acting inhibitor of influenza A virus entry.

Selection of an affinity-matured antibody against a defined epitope by phage display of an immune antibody library.

In a previous study, we generated a murine hepatitis B virus (HBV)-neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb), KR127, that binds to an epitope (amino acids 37-45, NSNNPDWDF) of the preS1 antigen. Furthermore, an epitope tag, S1 (NANNPDWDF), was developed for protein tagging. The aim of the present study was to develop a high-affinity antibody to the same preS1 epitope. Mice were immunized with the N-terminal domain of human thrombopoietin fused to the S1 tag (nTPO-S1), and a phage-displayed chimeric Fab library was constructed and screened by panning against nTPO-S1. A high-affinity antibody (3-34) was selected that binds to the preS1 antigen. The IgG molecules of 3-34 showed approximately nine-fold higher affinity (K(D) 1.2 nM) for preS1 compared with KR127 (K(D) 10.4 nM), competed with KR127 for binding to the epitope, and bound to HBV particles. This study provides a simple and efficient way to develop a high-affinity antibody to a defined epitope by phage display of an immune antibody library.

Guided selection of human antibody light chains against TAG-72 using a phage display chain shuffling approach.

To enhance therapeutic potential of murine monoclonal antibody, humanization by CDR grafting is usually used to reduce immunogenic mouse residues. Most humanized antibodies still have mouse residues critical for antigen binding, but the mouse residues may evoke immune responses in humans. Previously, we constructed a new humanized version (AKA) of mouse CC49 antibody specific for tumor-associated glycoprotein, TAG-72. In this study, to select a completely human antibody light chain against TAG-72, guided selection strategy using phage display was used. The heavy chain variable region (VH) of AKA was used to guide the selection of a human TAG-72-specific light chain variable region (VL) from a human VL repertoire constructed from human PBL. Most of the selected VLs were identified to be originated from the members of the human germline VK1 family, whereas the VL of AKA is more homologous to the VK4 family. Competition binding assay of the selected Fabs with mouse CC49 suggested that the epitopes of the Fabs overlap with that of CC49. In addition, they showed better antigen-binding affinity compared to parental AKA. The selected human VLs may be used to guide the selection of human VHs to get completely human anti-TAG72 antibody.

Anti-cancer Activity of Novel TM4SF5-Targeting Antibodies through TM4SF5 Neutralization and Immune Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity.

The transmembrane four L6 family member 5 (TM4SF5) protein is a novel molecular target for the prevention and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. TM4SF5 is highly expressed in liver, colon, esophageal, and pancreatic cancers and is implicated in tumor progression. Here, we screened monoclonal antibodies that specifically bound to the extracellular loop 2 (EC2) of TM4SF5 from a phage-displayed murine antibody (single-chain variable fragment; scFv) library. We constructed and characterized chimeric antibodies, Ab27 and Ab79, of scFv fused with Fc domain of human IgG1. The affinity (KD) of Ab27 and Ab79 for soluble EC2 was approximately 9.2 nM and 16.9 nM, respectively, as determined by surface plasmon resonance analysis. Ab27 and Ab79 efficiently bound to native TM4SF5 on the cell surface were internalized into the cancer cells, leading to a decrease in cell surface TM4SF5. Ab27 and Ab79 inhibited the proliferation and invasion of TM4SF5-positive liver and colon cancer cells and reduced FAK and c-Src phosphorylation. Ab27 and Ab79 also enhanced anoikis sensitivity and reduced survivin. Ab27 mediated antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro. Ab27 and Ab79 efficiently inhibited tumor growth in a liver cancer xenograft model. These results strongly support the further development of Ab27 as a novel anti-cancer agent in the clinic.

Antibody engineering for the development of therapeutic antibodies.

Therapeutic antibodies represent one of the fastest growing areas of the pharmaceutical industry. There are currently 19 monoclonal antibodies in the market that have been approved by the FDA and over 150 in clinical developments. Driven by innovation and technological developments, therapeutic antibodies are the second largest biopharmaceutical product category after vaccines. Antibodies have been engineered by a variety of methods to suit a particular therapeutic use. This review describes the structural and functional characteristics of antibody and the antibody engineering for the generation and optimization of therapeutic antibodies.

Stimulation of angiogenesis and survival of endothelial cells by human monoclonal Tie2 receptor antibody.

Angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) and its endothelium-specific receptor, tyrosine kinase with Ig and epidermal growth factor homology domain 2 (Tie2), play critical roles in vascular development. Although the Ang1/Tie2 system has been considered a promising target for therapeutic neovascularization, several imitations of large-scale production have hampered the development of recombinant Ang1 for therapeutics. In this study, we produced a fully human agonistic antibody against Tie2, designated 1-4h, and tested the applicability of 1-4h as an alternative to native Ang1 in therapeutic angiogenesis. 1-4h significantly enhanced the phosphorylation of Tie2 in a dose- and time-dependent manner in human Tie2-expressing HEK293 cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Moreover, 1-4h induced the activation of Tie2-mediated intracellular signaling such as AKT, eNOS, MAPK, and Focal Adhesion Kinase p125(FAK). In addition, 1-4h increased the chemotactic motility and capillary-like tube formation of endothelial cells in vitro and enhanced the survival of serum-deprived endothelial cells. Taken together, our data clearly suggest that a human Tie2 agonistic antibody is a potentially useful therapeutic approach for the treatment of several ischemic diseases including delayed-wound healing and ischemic heart and limb diseases.

Correlations between transmembrane 4 L6 family member 5 (TM4SF5), CD151, and CD63 in liver fibrotic phenotypes and hepatic migration and invasive capacities.

Transmembrane 4 L6 family member 5 (TM4SF5) is overexpressed during CCl4-mediated murine liver fibrosis and in human hepatocellular carcinomas. The tetraspanins form tetraspanin-enriched microdomains (TEMs) consisting of large membrane protein complexes on the cell surface. Thus, TM4SF5 may be involved in the signal coordination that controls liver malignancy. We investigated the relationship between TM4SF5-positive TEMs with liver fibrosis and tumorigenesis, using normal Chang hepatocytes that lack TM4SF5 expression and chronically TGFß1-treated Chang cells that express TM4SF5. TM4SF5 expression is positively correlated with tumorigenic CD151 expression, but is negatively correlated with tumor-suppressive CD63 expression in mouse fibrotic and human hepatic carcinoma tissues, indicating cooperative roles of the tetraspanins in liver malignancies. Although CD151 did not control the expression of TM4SF5, TM4SF5 appeared to control the expression levels of CD151 and CD63. TM4SF5 interacted with CD151, and caused the internalization of CD63 from the cell surface into late lysosomal membranes, presumably leading to terminating the tumor-suppressive functions of CD63. TM4SF5 could overcome the tumorigenic effects of CD151, especially cell migration and extracellular matrix (ECM)-degradation. Taken together, TM4SF5 appears to play a role in liver malignancy by controlling the levels of tetraspanins on the cell surface, and could provide a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of liver malignancies.

Humanization by guided selections.

Guided selection provides a powerful tool for humanization of the preexisting nonhuman antibodies as exemplified by HUMIRA, the world's first human antibody approved. This chapter describes the sequential guided selection procedure in which mouse VL and VH domains are replaced sequentially with human VL and VH, respectively to derive completely human antibody. The detailed protocols for construction of phage-displayed antibody library, panning, screening, and characterization, are included to achieve successful selection of human antibody with similar characteristics to original mouse antibody.