GLOBAL RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS IN ZOO-MANAGED GOELDI'S MONKEYS (CALLIMICO GOELDII), 1965-2018.

As part of the collaborative efforts and goals of managing zoo-housed Goeldi's monkeys, or callimicos (Callimico goeldii), a retrospective review of gross and histopathological postmortem examination reports submitted to the International Studbook Coordinator was carried out by veterinary representatives of the Species Survival Plan to investigate disease trends. A total of 1,887 postmortem reports (1965-2018) collected from more than 150 institutions were reviewed. Histologic findings from 862 postmortem reports and primary causes of mortality were compiled to determine the most common findings. Within the study population, 419 individuals (48.6%) were male, 383 (44.4%) female, and the remaining 60 (7%) of undetermined sex. The primary lesion at death in adults was chronic renal disease. The other prevalent lesions included cardiac disease, myelolipomas, enteritis, colitis, and hepatitis. In Great Britain and mainland Europe, Yersinia spp. infection had significantly higher prevalence than in North American callimico populations. Multiple lesions affecting more than one organ system were identified in many animals of this study population. Results also showed that for adult callimicos in zoological institutions in North America, Europe, and Great Britain, life span has been increasing over the last 50 yr.

CLINICOPATHOLOGIC EVALUATION OF AN EX SITU POPULATION OF ADULT AFRICAN WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLIN (PHATAGINUS TRICUSPIS).

Death due to illegal trade and trafficking serves as the largest threat to pangolins in their geographic range countries. Appropriate veterinary care is essential to the welfare of sick or debilitated pangolins. Given the challenge of comprehensive physical examination of this species due to its unique anatomic features and poorly studied physiology, laboratory diagnostics can provide essential information to guide appropriate medical care. This retrospective study included previously analyzed blood and urine samples collected from adult (n = 17) African white-bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis) under managed care that were sampled over a 4-yr period as part of routine veterinary examinations. Samples from clinically normal animals were used to summarize results for this species. Pangolins had a lymphocyte-predominant leukogram with a mean neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio of 0.83 (min-max: 0.13-4.81). Seasonal, sex, and age differences were present for several hematologic and serum biochemical analytes. Urine samples had a median urine specific gravity (USG) of 1.040 (min-max: 1.006-1.060), a neutral-to-basic urine pH (6.0-8.6), and contained mainly struvite crystals or infrequently calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals. Winter samples had higher USG than summer samples. The clinicopathologic data provided herein offers applicable information useful for the clinical management of pangolins.

Shell Lesions Associated With Emydomyces testavorans Infection in Freshwater Aquatic Turtles.

A newly described onygenalean fungus, Emydomyces testavorans, has been isolated from ulcerative shell and skin lesions of freshwater aquatic chelonians. To investigate the shell lesions associated with infection and determine if any lesional features were unique to E. testavorans, tissues from turtles housed in zoological institutions (n = 45) in the United States and free-living turtles (n = 5) submitted for diagnostic biopsy or necropsy were examined. Free-living turtles were from geographically distinct habitats in Florida (n = 1) and Washington (n = 4) at the time of sampling. Histologic shell sections were evaluated for the presence or absence of specific lesional features. Infection with E. testavorans was evaluated in all cases by screening GMS (Grocott-Gomori's methenamine silver)-stained histologic sections for the presence of morphologically consistent fungi and by quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction) on representative frozen tissue or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections. Additionally, culture was performed for 15 cases with available fresh/frozen tissue. In total, there were 17 PCR-confirmed E. testavorans cases, 29 cases with morphologically consistent fungi on GMS-stained sections, and 21 cases of shell lesions without histologic or molecular evidence of E. testavorans infection. Epithelial inclusion cysts, defined as cystic structures within the dermis lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and containing necrotic bone and keratin debris, were significantly (P < .01) associated with E. testavorans infection. Other significantly associated shell lesions included squamous metaplasia, hyperkeratosis, inflammation, and osteonecrosis (P < .05). This study identified characteristic shell lesions associated with E. testavorans infection. Further studies to prove causality are needed.

SUCCESSFUL SURGICAL CORRECTION OF PHIMOSIS IN AMUR LEOPARDS (PANTHERA PARDUS ORIENTALIS) USING A CARBON DIOXIDE LASER: CASE SERIES.

Three juvenile (<1 yr of age), genetically related Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis) were diagnosed with phimosis. In all cases, no clinical signs were identified, and phimosis was detected during routine examination. Surgical enlargement of the preputial orifice was performed successfully using carbon dioxide laser with a 0.25-mm tip and an 8-watt continuous wave setting. A linear incision on the ventral aspect of the preputial opening allowed for complete preputial extrusion followed by placement of simple-interrupted sutures on both sides of the incision. No postoperative complications were observed, and there was no evidence of phimosis recurrence at subsequent examinations. Preputioplasty with carbon dioxide laser was used to successfully manage Amur leopards with phimosis. Given relatedness of these cases, a genetic predisposition for phimosis development in Amur leopards must be considered.

REVIEW OF HISTOLOGIC LESIONS AND MORTALITY IN RIO CAUCA CAECILIANS (TYPHLONECTES NATANS) OVER A 22-YEAR PERIOD.

Rio Cauca caecilians (Typhlonectes natans) are a unique, fully aquatic species of amphibian from the order Gymnophiona. They are housed in several zoological institutions and aquaria with limited information available regarding health and disease. This retrospective study evaluates common pathologic findings and causes of mortality of Rio Cauca caecilians from three different institutions over a 22-y period. Comparisons to previous medical health surveys were conducted with evaluation according to age class and sex to determine whether the primary causes of mortality and common histologic findings have remained similar over time and between institutions. Between 1997 and 2019, the 62 mortalities included males (15/62; 24.2%), females (26/62; 41.9%), and undetermined sex (21/62; 33.9%). The majority of examined individuals were adult (38/62; 61.3%), followed by juveniles (13/62; 21.0%), neonates (9/62; 14.5%), and undetermined age class (2/62; 3.2%). Thirteen (21.0%) individuals were euthanatized. Adult females (16/62; 25.48%) represented the largest group. In adults, the most common lesion and contributor to death was renal disease (28/38; 73.7%) followed by skin disease (16/38; 42.1%), including oomycete dermatitis (8/38; 21.1%) from Saprolegnia sp. Other common findings included bacterial dermatitis, gastrointestinal nematodiasis, and adrenal hyperplasia. This retrospective study will provide a useful reference to help guide veterinary care, management decisions, and collection management planning for this caecilian species in managed care.

SERUM ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS IN BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) AND CORRELATION WITH COMMONLY UTILIZED INFLAMMATORY INDICES.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

OBJECTIVE GAIT ANALYSIS IN HUMBOLDT PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI) USING A PRESSURE-SENSITIVE WALKWAY.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Medical record reviews and comprehensive examinations were performed on all penguins; five penguins were considered abnormal, with either right-sided (n = 3) or bilateral historical lameness-causing disease (n = 2) and were analyzed separately from the normal data set. All penguins walked across the PSW four times and gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each penguin. Statistical comparisons were made between right and left feet, sexes, and normal and abnormal penguins for each gait parameter. Among normal penguins, there were no significant differences between feet or sex. Left step width was shorter in abnormal penguins than that of normal penguins. Study results established baseline values for Humboldt penguins. This will allow objective monitoring of progression and response to therapy in penguin lameness cases, both current and future. The data also provide a foundation to compare gait parameters with other penguin populations and species.

ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY, AND DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING OF THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF MALE AARDVARK ( ORYCTEROPUS AFER).

The reproductive tracts of three captive male aardvark ( Orycteropus afer) were evaluated to characterize the gross and histological anatomy, with correlations to ultrasonographic and computed tomographic imaging. Observations were made from a reproductive tract examined at necropsy, with subsequent evaluation of tissues histologically. Two living specimens were evaluated via ultrasonography with a 10-MHz linear transducer. One living animal was also evaluated via computed tomography. Prominent external scent glands were present at the base of the prepuce. Testicles were present internally at the level of the inguinal canal and capable of sliding into a subcutaneous position. Accessory sex glands consisted of seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, with histological characteristics similar to other species. Ultrasonography was an effective tool for evaluation of internal and external reproductive structures, while the usefulness of computed tomography was limited in the evaluation of pelvic organs due to artifact from nearby bony structures. While a larger study population is desirable, this report provides an important comparative anatomical reference and will help improve the clinical management and care of this species.

COMPARISON OF TRANSCUTANEOUS ULTRASOUND AND COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY EVALUATION OF KIDNEY SIZE AND EVALUATION OF ADRENAL GLAND SIZE USING ULTRASOUND IN A COLONY OF CALLIMICOS ( CALLIMICO GOELDII).

Both kidney and adrenal gland disease have been identified in callimicos ( Callimico goeldii). Ultrasonography (US) and computed tomography (CT) are routinely utilized in veterinary patients with suspected renal or adrenal disease to determine size, shape, and echogenicity of these organs. No previous US and CT kidney and adrenal gland measurements have been published for callimicos. In this study, 14 callimicos were anesthetized using isoflurane via facemask to evaluate kidney and adrenal gland size using US for both organs and CT for kidneys. Animals were considered clinically healthy based on history, physical examination, hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysis, and abdominal US. Ultrasound organ measurements for length (L), width (W), and height (H) in centimeters (mean/median, 95% confidence interval) in clinically healthy animals were right kidney (L = 1.90, 1.76-2.01; W = 1.05, 0.97-1.13; H = 1.59, 1.48-1.69), left kidney (L = 1.84, 1.72-1.95; W = 1.16, 1.04-1.28; H = 1.54, 1.43-1.65), right adrenal gland (L = 0.38, 0.33-0.57; H = 0.19, 0.15-0.31) and left adrenal gland (L = 0.36, 0.32-0.39; H = 0.18, 0.17-0.20). All kidney measurements were positively correlated with animal weight ( P < 0.05) but had no significant correlation to age. Measurements did not have any significant relationship to evaluated blood and urine parameters. Results from this study establish baseline measurements for callimico kidneys and adrenal glands to help clinicians use these imaging modalities for evaluation of these organs in this endangered species.

OSTEOCHONDRAL AUTOGRAFT TRANSFER FOR TREATMENT OF STIFLE OSTEOCHONDRITIS DISSECANS IN TWO RELATED SNOW LEOPARDS ( PANTHERA UNCIA).

Two related female snow leopards ( Panthera uncia) were diagnosed with osteochondritis dissecans of the lateral femoral condyle via radiographs and computed tomography. Lesions were either bilateral (Patient 1) or unilateral (Patient 2). Surgical treatment was performed using an osteochondral autograft transfer system following cartilage flap removal. After a 6-wk recovery period, both animals had a markedly improved gait with mild pelvic limb stiffness. Patient 1 developed intermittent lameness 9 mo postsurgery and Patient 2 had mild lameness 3 yr postsurgery. Because of recurrent lameness, both animals were treated with platelet-rich plasma intra-articular injections and oral gabapentin (Patient 1) or oral meloxicam (Patient 2). Full incorporation of autografts was confirmed with computed tomography (both patients) and arthroscopy (Patient 1 only). Osteochondritis dissecans has been previously reported in snow leopards and these cases represent the first reported use of osteochondral autograft repair and platelet-rich plasma to treat the condition.

REPEATED ANESTHESIA IN A BLACK RHINOCEROS ( DICEROS BICORNIS) TO MANAGE UPPER RESPIRATORY OBSTRUCTION.

This report describes weekly repeated anesthesia in a 7-yr-old, 1,030 kg, female Eastern black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis michaeli), that was immobilized six times using a combination of 2 mg etorphine (0.002 mg/kg), 5 mg medetomidine (0.005 mg/kg), 25 mg midazolam (0.024 mg/kg), and 300 mg ketamine (0.29 mg/kg) delivered intramuscularly (IM) via remote dart to facilitate long-term medical care of a bilateral, obstructive Actinomyces sp. rhinitis. The drug combination described in this study resulted in reliable, rapid recumbency of the animal within 2-8 min after initial administration via dart and produced deep anesthesia for 34-78 min without supplemental anesthetic administration. Antagonist drugs (100 mg naltrexone [0.1 mg/kg] and 25 mg atipamezole [0.024 mg/kg] IM) produced reliable and uneventful recoveries in all the procedures. During each anesthetic procedure, the animal was intubated and provided intermittent positive pressure ventilation with a megavertebrate demand ventilator. Tachycardia and hypoxia noted after induction resolved after positive pressure ventilation with oxygen. This report provides useful information on a novel anesthetic protocol used repeatedly for intensive medical management in a black rhinoceros.

TREATMENT OF DIABETES MELLITUS IN A GOLDEN LION TAMARIN (LEONTOPITHECUS ROSALIA) WITH THE GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 MIMETIC EXENATIDE.

An 8-yr-old male golden lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus rosalia ) was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus based on hyperglycemia and persistent glycosuria. Initial treatment consisted of the oral antihyperglycemic medications glipizide and metformin that resulted in decreased blood glucose concentrations; however, marked glycosuria persisted. Insufficient improvement on oral antihyperglycemic therapy and poor feasibility of daily subcutaneous insulin therapy led to an investigation into an alternative therapy with extended-release exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic, at a dosage of 0.13 mg/kg subcutaneously once per month. Following treatment with exenatide, the persistent glycosuria resolved, the animal maintained normal blood glucose concentrations, and had lower serum fructosamine concentrations compared to pretreatment levels. Based on these findings, extended-release exenatide could be considered as a therapeutic option in nonhuman primates with diabetes mellitus that do not respond to oral antihyperglycemics and in which daily subcutaneous insulin is not feasible.

EVALUATION OF IN-HOUSE URINE DIPSTICK, REFERENCE LABORATORY URINALYSIS, AND URINE PROTEIN: CREATININE RATIO FROM A COLONY OF CALLIMICOS (CALLIMICO GOELDII).

This study evaluated results from an in-house (IH) laboratory dipstick, a reference laboratory (RL) urinalysis, and urine protein : creatinine (UPC) ratios from callimicos ( Callimico goeldii ). Urine was collected from 25 individuals comprising a single colony under professional care in North America and compared based on laboratory, sex, age class, and presence or absence of a normal urinalysis. Urine specific gravity and pH between laboratories were statistically different. Overall, 56% to 100% of animals had at least a trace amount of protein in their urine. In comparing normal and abnormal urinalyses, IH dipstick protein, RL dipstick protein, RL pH, quantitative protein measurement, and UPC ratios were all statistically different. Eleven animals (44%) had UPC ratios that were ≥0.5. Based on results of this study, UPC > 0.3 was found to be abnormal and supportive of renal compromise in callimicos. Higher protein concentrations on the IH dipstick, the quantitative protein concentration, and UPC ratio in the 1- to 4-yr-old age class were the only significant age-related differences. There was no association between any categorical variable (glucose, blood, bilirubin, ketones, urobilinogen) and abnormal urinalysis. There were no differences between sexes. Since renal disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in this species, the authors recommend including routine urinalyses and UPC ratios as part of preventive care programs for callimicos. These data provide the first published information on urinalysis and UPC ratios in callimicos and will serve as a helpful reference for interpreting results and evaluating patients with renal disease.

HYPERCALCEMIA AND METASTATIC MINERALIZATION INVOLVING FOOTPADS IN ROCK HYRAXES (PROCAVIA CAPENSIS).

Three rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) maintained in a zoological collection had chronic hypercalcemia and azotemia. In addition, all animals displayed signs of lameness due to footpad lesions that were histologically characterized as marked metastatic mineralization with granulomatous inflammation, reminiscent of calcinosis circumscripta. Although the animals were managed with aggressive fluid therapy, calciuresis, and dietary modification, all were eventually humanely euthanized due to the severity of their footpad lesions and/or progression of renal disease. Metastatic mineralization was also noted in other soft tissues among the three cases, including the stomach, colon, lung, vascular wall, ovary, and kidney. Varying degrees of interstitial nephritis were confirmed on postmortem examination, and in the absence of other causes for hypercalcemia, metastatic mineralization was presumably the consequence renal dysfunction. The renal pathway is the primary mode of calcium excretion in the rock hyrax. In renal dysfunction, hypercalcemia may develop secondary to decreased calcium excretion. Footpad mineralization is an uncommon sequel to renal dysfunction in domestic animals but has not been reported in rock hyraxes. A retrospective review of mortality data in this collection revealed a notable prevalence of renal lesions, including two additional animals with metastatic mineralization and renal dysfunction. Expanding knowledge of renal diseases will further guide preventative and clinical measures, including screening for metastatic mineralization and therapeutic trials for management of hypercalcemia and calcium mineral deposition in the footpads and other soft tissues.

Herpesvirus and calicivirus infection in a black-footed cat (Fels nigripes) family group following vaccination.

Preventive healthcare recommendations for zoo felids include vaccination against primary viral diseases that affect domestic felids. Although associated with a more-substantial immune response in their domestic counterparts, use of modified live virus vaccines (MLV) in nondomestic carnivores can result in vaccine-induced viral disease. This case report details a feline herpesvirus and calicivirus outbreak in two black-footed cat (Felis nigripes) kittens and their dam following use of an MLV in the kittens. Clinical signs included anorexia, nasal discharge, sneezing, and tachypnea. Patient history, clinical signs, real-time polymerase chain reaction results, and histopathologic evaluation of tissues confirmed the diagnosis. Although unable to definitively prove that the disease observed in these cases was caused by the MLV, there is strong temporal and circumstantial evidence that this was the case. This outbreak of feline upper respiratory infection following vaccination with a multivalent MLV resulted in significant morbidity and mortality, serving as an important reminder that recombinant or killed vaccines are the safest choice for use in nondomestic species, particularly in kittens.

RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF THE PREVALENCE OF MYELOLIPOMA IN GOELDI'S MONKEYS (CALLIMICO GOELDII).

Myelolipomas are mesenchymal tumors composed of adipose and hematopoietic tissue. They have been reported in many species, including domestic dogs and cats, birds, mustelids, wild felids, and nonhuman primates. Myelolipomas in Callitrichidae have been reported at postmortem examination and rarely antemortem. Multiple cases of hepatic myelolipomas associated with morbidity in Chicago Zoological Society's collection of Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) prompted a global retrospective study to determine the prevalence and investigate factors associated with this condition. A total of 842 postmortem examination reports (1965-2013) collected from 133 captive collections were reviewed. Myelolipomas were reported in 17.2% (n=145) of animals, with significantly more female cases than male (P=0.023). There was a significantly older mean age at death in affected animals (134 months) compared to unaffected animals (79 months) (P<0.0001). Myelolipomas were diagnosed in the liver in all affected animals, and rarely in the adrenal or spleen. One in five (22.1%) affected Callimico had notable morbidity associated with this disease, which is markedly different from the primarily benign reports in other species. To identify disease, prevent morbidity from hepatic myelolipoma, and improve care of Callimico species in zoological collections, new Species Survival Plan (SSP) medical management recommendations include incorporating abdominal ultrasonographic examination during routine physical examinations in addition to previously recommended hematological and serum biochemical evaluations. Future studies are merited to examine the prevalence, risk factors, health effects, and treatment options of myelolipoma in living collections.

Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 in South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis) and a novel related herpesvirus in free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia): Prevalence and effects of age, sex, and sample type.

Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 (OtGHV1) is associated with high rates of urogenital carcinoma in free-ranging California sea lions (Zalophus californianus; CSL), and until recently was reported only in the Northern Hemisphere. The objective of this study was to survey free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia; SASL) and South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis: SAFS) in Punta San Juan, Peru for OtGHV1 and to determine prevalence characteristics. Twenty-one percent (14/67) of urogenital swabs collected over three years (2011, 2014, 2015) from live pinnipeds of both species tested positive with a pan-herpesvirus conventional PCR. Sequencing of SAFS amplicons revealed 100% homology to OtGHV1 at the DNA polymerase, glycoprotein B, and viral bcl2-like genes. Sequencing of SASL amplicons revealed a novel related virus, herein called Otariid gammaherpesvirus 8 (OtGHV8). For comparison of sample sites, urogenital, conjunctival, and oropharyngeal swabs collected from 136 live pinnipeds of both species at Punta San Juan between 2011-2018 were then assayed using quantitative PCR for a segment of the OtGHV1/8 DNA polymerase gene using a qPCR assay now determined to cross-react between the two viruses. In total, across both species, 38.6% (51/132) of urogenital swabs, 5.6% (4/71) of conjunctival swabs, and 1.1% (1/90) of oropharyngeal swabs were positive for OtGHV1/8, with SASL only positive on urogenital swabs. Results from SASL were complicated by the finding of OtGHV8, necessitating further study to determine prevalence of OtGHV1 versus OtGHV8 using an alternate assay. Results from SAFS suggest a potential relationship between OtGHV1 in SAFS and CSL. Though necropsy surveillance in SAFS is very limited, geographic patterns of OtGHV1-associated urogenital carcinoma in CSL and the tendency of herpesviruses to cause more detrimental disease in aberrant hosts suggests that it is possible that SAFS may be the definitive host of OtGHV1, which gives further insight into the diversity and phyogeography of this clade of related gammaherpesviruses.

Multifocal Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoforms: infection, treatment, and monitoring by serial computed tomography in a Schmidt's red-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti).

A 9-yr-old, female, intact Schmidt's red-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti) presented with an acute swelling, consistent with an abscess over the right hip. Cytology, culture, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results from material within the abscess and serum titers were all indicative of a Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Thoracic radiographs and computed tomography (CT) revealed a consolidated right caudal lung lobe associated with an endobronchial mass. Pulmonary Cryptococcus infection and systemic disease was confirmed with positive brush cytology and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Culture and sensitivity, minimum inhibitory concentration values, and serum fluconazole level results were used to develop and monitor treatment efficacy for this animal. Sequential thoracic radiographs, CT images, bronchoscopy, BAL, and serology were used to monitor response to therapy. Five months after initial diagnosis, pregnancy was confirmed and the frequency of immobilizations for recheck serology and diagnostic imaging was decreased to lessen radiation exposure and physiologic stress to the dam and fetus. Long-term administration of oral fluconazole was well accepted and effective at treating the multifocal C. neoformans infection. No long-term adverse effects of therapy were observed, and repeated diagnostics were well tolerated. Advanced imaging modalities and serum drug levels were critical to the assessment, monitoring, and treatment of infection in this animal and should be considered for other cases.

Regional Anesthesia of the Dentition in Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus): Anatomical Landmarks and Approaches Assessed with Computed Tomography and Gross Dissection.

Dental disease is common in captive-managed macropods, including Bennett's wallabies, and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Dental extractions and debridement of diseased tissue is often necessary for those undergoing treatment for severe dental disease. Regional anesthesia of the dentition is considered standard of care for domestic animals undergoing orofacial surgery, however, it is not routinely performed in macropods due to limited information on dental anatomy and block approaches. Regional block descriptions for the infraorbital, maxillary, inferior alveolar, and mental blocks in domestic dogs and cats were evaluated and adapted for use in Bennett's wallabies based on descriptions of their anatomy and examination of 2 skulls. These approaches were then performed on cadaver heads with iohexol and methylene blue dye, and block placement was assessed on computed tomography scans and by gross dissection. All block approaches described in this study resulted in appropriate placement of regional anesthesia of the dentition in Bennett's wallabies. They can thus be used by clinicians to improve the intra and postoperative pain control of patients and provide a high level of veterinary care.

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra in three captive African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus).

Pyometra and cystic endometrial hyperplasia are common in domestic canids and are suspected to develop as a consequence of elevated progesterone levels. Reports of uterine pathology in exotic canids are limited, with some speculating of association with contraception. This report describes pyometra, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, and ovariohysterectomy in three African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus). Ovarian corpora lutea were detected in two of the dogs, suggesting endogenous progesterone production. One dog had a uterine adenocarcinoma and two had ovarian granulosa cell tumors. Clinical signs included anorexia, lethargy, vulvar discharge, polyuria, polydipsia, and abdominal distention. Diagnosis was based on clinical signs, physical examination, bloodwork, radiography, and ultrasonography, with confirmation through histopathologic evaluation of tissues. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia, pyometra, and uterine neoplasia have rarely been diagnosed in exotic canids; however, they should be considered as differential diagnoses in intact bitches that present with suspected reproductive disease.