Understanding the relationship between social camouflaging in autism and safety behaviours in social anxiety in autistic and non-autistic adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Social camouflaging (hereafter camouflaging) in autism includes factors such as masking and compensating for one's neurodevelopmental differences, and to assimilate or 'fit in' with non-autistic peers. Efforts to hide one's authentic self and autism traits (masking) resemble impression management (IM) in safety behaviours identified in Clark and Wells' (1995) cognitive model of social anxiety (SA). This study explores the relationship between camouflaging in autism and safety behaviours in SA among autistic and non-autistic adolescents. METHODS: One hundred fifteen adolescents (14-19 years) with (n = 61; 36 female) and without (n = 54; 37 female) a clinical diagnosis of autism matched on age and SA symptom severity were recruited from clinics, schools and online. Adolescents completed online measures including autism traits, SA symptoms, camouflaging behaviours, SA-related safety behaviours and SA-related negative cognitions. Partial and bivariate Pearson's correlations and structural equation modelling were used to understand the relationship between camouflaging, safety behaviours, autism traits and SA in both groups. Exploratory factor analysis assessed item-level factor cross-loadings between camouflaging and safety behaviours. RESULTS: Across both groups, masking and IM were significantly associated with SA symptom severity, not autism traits, via SA-related social cognitions. Exploratory factor analysis indicated construct overlap across masking, assimilation, IM and avoidance behaviours and identified factors analogous to self-focused attention, social avoidance and mental rehearsal identified in the Clark and Wells' (1995) model of SA. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study using group-matched design to identify that masking (factor in social camouflaging) and IM both relate to SA in autistic and non-autistic adolescents. Assessment and formulation of construct overlap between masking and IM may inform psychoeducation and adaptation of SA treatment for autistic adolescents.

Exploring the association between social camouflaging and self- versus caregiver-report discrepancies in anxiety and depressive symptoms in autistic and non-autistic socially anxious adolescents.

LAY ABSTRACT: Social camouflaging or masking refers to strategies autistic individuals adopt to hide their autism persona when trying to fit in. It is unclear whether camouflaging is only applicable to social differences unique to autism, or more generally to any types of social difference, such as experiences of mental health difficulties. We asked 43 autistic and 39 non-autistic adolescents (aged 14-19 years, all of whom showed similarly high levels of social anxiety) and their primary caregivers to complete questionnaires about their mental health (anxiety and depression) and autistic traits, and adolescents self-reported camouflaging behaviours. We wondered if camouflaging may be used to hide mental health difficulties reported by young people and affect caregiver report on symptom severity. We found that adolescents who self-reported greater levels of autistic traits, anxiety and depression symptoms compared with their caregivers reported greater camouflaging. Adolescents who agreed on having high levels of autistic traits and anxiety symptoms with their caregivers reported greater camouflaging behaviours. We discuss how having high levels of autistic traits and anxiety may increase adolescents' camouflaging behaviours to hide social differences, which may contribute towards poor mental health outcomes. We think it is important to talk with adolescents about how camouflaging social and mental health difference can have negative impacts for mental health as well as possible positive social gains.

Barriers and facilitators to use of digital health tools by healthcare practitioners and their patients, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: a multimethods study.

OBJECTIVES: To explore how healthcare practitioners (HCPs) made decisions about the implementation of digital health technologies (DHTs) in their clinical practice before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. DESIGN: A multimethods study, comprising semistructured interviews conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, supplemented with an online survey that was conducted during the pandemic with a different sample, to ensure the qualitative findings remained relevant within the rapidly changing healthcare context. Participants were recruited through HCP networks, snowballing and social media. Data were analysed thematically. SETTING: Phone interviews and online survey. PARTICIPANTS: HCPs represented a range of professions from primary and secondary care across England, with varied socioeconomic deprivation. RESULTS: 24 HCPs were interviewed, and 16 HCPs responded to the survey. In the interviews, HCPs described three levels where decisions were made, which determined who would have access to what DHTs: health organisation, HCP and patient levels. These decisions resulted in the unequal implementation of DHTs across health services, created barriers for HCPs using DHTs in their practice and influenced HCPs' decisions on which patients to supply DHTs with. In the survey, HCPs described being provided support to overcome some of the barriers at the organisation and HCP level during the pandemic. However, they cited similar concerns to pre-pandemic about barriers patients faced using DHTs (eg, digital literacy). In the absence of centralised guidance on how to manage these barriers, health services made their own decisions about how to adapt their services for those who struggled with DHTs. CONCLUSIONS: Decision-making at the health organisation, HCP and patient levels influences inequalities in access to DHTs for HCPs and patients. The mobilisation of centralised information and resources during the pandemic can be viewed as good practice for reducing barriers to use of DHTs for HCPs. However, attention must also be paid to reducing barriers to accessing DHTs for patients.

The impact of a positive autism identity and autistic community solidarity on social anxiety and mental health in autistic young people.

LAY ABSTRACT: Autism is a diagnosis given to individuals by professionals but is also increasingly seen as an identity which an individual can choose for themselves. We wanted to explore how having autism as an identity affects autistic young people. There is evidence that autistic adults have better psychological well-being when they feel more solidarity with other autistic people and feel positively about being autistic. We know that autistic teenagers often feel anxious in social situations. Having a positive autism identity might help alleviate social anxiety associated with being autistic. We wanted to find out if autistic young people who felt more solidarity with other autistic people, and had more positive feelings about autism, had better psychological well-being and less social anxiety. We asked 121 autistic people aged 15-22 years to complete some questionnaires. These questionnaires asked about the young person's autism traits, social anxiety, and psychological well-being. The questionnaires also asked how satisfied they felt to be autistic (satisfaction) and how much solidarity they felt with the autism community (solidarity). We found that autistic young people who had higher autism satisfaction had better psychological well-being and lower social anxiety. Young people who felt more solidarity with other autistic people had higher psychological well-being. There was no association between autism solidarity and social anxiety. We conclude that is important to support autistic young people to develop positive feelings about autism and to feel solidarity with other autistic people.

Examining the relationship between cognitive inflexibility and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in autistic children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Compared to neurotypical peers, autistic adolescents show greater cognitive inflexibility (CI) which manifests at the behavioral and cognitive level and potentially increases vulnerability for the development of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) symptoms. This systematic review and meta-analysis explored the association between CI and INT/EXT in autistic adolescents. PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and Web of Science databases were searched to identify relevant studies until April 2022 (PROSPERO protocol: CRD42021277294). Systematic review included 21 studies (n = 1608) of CI and INT, and 15 studies (n = 1115) of CI and EXT. A pooled effect size using Pearson's correlation between CI and INT/EXT was calculated and the moderating effects of age, sex, IQ and study quality were investigated using meta-regressions. Sensitivity analyses were completed to investigate the impact of measure variance for CI and co-occurring ADHD on the overall effects. Greater CI is associated with increased INT (nine studies; n = 833; r = 0.39 (moderate effect), 95% confidence interval [0.32, 0.46]) and EXT (six studies; n = 295; r = 0.48 (large effect), 95% confidence interval [0.38, 0.58]). Results withheld when only using parental reports of CI and excluding autistic adolescents with co-occurring ADHD. Increased CI may be a transdiagnostic vulnerability factor that can increase autistic adolescents' rigid or perseverative patterns of unhelpful cognition and behaviors and reduce their ability to access psychological interventions. Addressing CI may improve autistic children and adolescents' engagement with psychological therapy for co-occurring mental health difficulties.

Experiences of student and trainee autism researchers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Circumstances surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in significant personal and professional adjustments. Students and trainees, including those in autism research, face unique challenges to accomplishing their training and career goals during this unprecedented time. In this commentary, we, as members of the International Society for Autism Research Student and Trainee Committee, describe our personal experiences, which may or may not align with those of other students and trainees. Our experiences have varied both in terms of the ease (or lack thereof) with which we adapted and the degree to which we were supported in the transition to online research and clinical practice. We faced and continue to adjust to uncertainties about future training and academic positions, for which opportunities have been in decline and have subsequently negatively impacted our mental health. Students and trainees' prospects have been particularly impacted compared to more established researchers and faculty. In addition to the challenges we have faced, however, there have also been unexpected benefits in our training during the pandemic, which we describe here. We have learned new coping strategies which, we believe, have served us well. The overarching goal of this commentary is to describe these experiences and strategies in the hope that they will benefit the autism research community moving forward. Here, we provide a set of recommendations for faculty, especially mentors, to support students and trainees as well as strategies for students and trainees to bolster their self-advocacy, both of which we see as crucial for our future careers. LAY SUMMARY: The COVID-19 pandemic has affected students and trainees, including those in autism research, in different ways. Here, we describe our personal experiences. These experiences include challenges. For example, it has been difficult to move from in-person to online work. It has also been difficult to keep up with work and training goals. Moreover, working from home has made it hard to connect with our supervisors and mentors. As a result, many of us have felt unsure about how to make the best career choices. Working in clinical services and getting to know and support our patients online has also been challenging. Overall, the pandemic has made us feel more isolated and some of us have struggled to cope with that. On the other hand, our experiences have also included benefits. For example, by working online, we have been able to join meetings all over the world. Also, the pandemic has pushed us to learn new skills. Those include technical skills but also skills for well-being. Next, we describe our experiences of returning to work. Finally, we give recommendations for trainees and supervisors on how to support each other and to build a strong community.

Understanding the role of self-determination in shaping university experiences for autistic and typically developing students in the United Kingdom.

LAY ABSTRACT: Prior research suggests that autistic students in higher education might struggle with developing autonomy, competence and establish relatedness due to their executive functioning and social communication difficulties. We interviewed 18 autistic and 18 typically developing students to explore how students perceived themselves to be in control of their university experience. Both groups provided anecdotal examples that supported similar perceptions of self-determination in shaping the academic, daily living and socialisation aspects of university life. Autistic students reflected on their cognitive strengths such as attention to detail, persistence and ability to tailor their academic studies towards their interest. Varying degrees of sociability were noted, with some autistic students preferring to focus their self-determination efforts on academic success, while others treasured the novel social experiences including peer support and friendship at university. Compared to greater flexibility endorsed by typically developing students, autistic students perceived establishing a routine at university to be a necessity and were self-determined in maintaining stability amid a sea of change. Recognising strengths and self-determination efforts in autistic students can help stakeholders support their personal development towards independent living and self-sufficiency in adulthood and to successfully transition into, through and out of university.

I Have a Fear of Negative Evaluation, Get Me Out of Here! Examining Latent Constructs of Social Anxiety and Autistic Traits in Neurotypical and Autistic Young People.

Understanding shared and unique constructs underlying social communication difficulties in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) can address potential diagnostic overshadowing when evaluating SAD in the context of autism. Using self-report measures, factor analyses examined constructs underlying autistic traits, social anxiety, internalising symptoms and wellbeing amongst 267 neurotypical (17-19 years) and 145 autistic (15-22 years) students in the UK. Shared constructs across measures assessed general social communication competency (e.g., social distress in new situations and peer relationships). Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) was identified in both samples as a stable construct unique to social anxiety. Adapting interventions targeting SAD in autism should target FNE during adolescence which marks a period of heightened peer interaction and social vulnerability.

Exploring an e-learning community's response to the language and terminology use in autism from two massive open online courses on autism education and technology use.

LAY ABSTRACT: Within the neurodiversity movement, one recent divergence is in the semantic choice of language when describing autism, as members of the autism and autistic community preferred to use identity-first language (autistic person), whereas professionals were more likely to use person-first language (person with autism). This study explored 803 e-learners' responses from their comments across two massive open online courses on autism education held between 2017 and 2019. Learners agreed that autistic individuals should guide others on which terminology to use when describing autism, and although identity-first language acknowledges autism as part of an individual's identity, it can also conjure up negative stereotypes and be stigmatising. Although family, friends and professionals highlighted that the diagnostic label is a way to facilitate understanding across stakeholder groups and help autistic individuals gain access to support, autistic self-advocates found the process of disclosing autism as a form of disability to conflict with their sense of identity, and broader terms such as 'autism spectrum' failed to capture individual strengths and weaknesses. Semantic language choices may matter less as long as the person's difficulties are clearly acknowledged, with adaptations made to meet their specific needs. Adding to a growing body of literature on terminology use in autism research and practice, we highlight that language used when describing autism should follow the autistic individual's lead, with the primary focus on communicating an individual's strengths and difficulties, to foster a sense of positive autism identity and inclusivity, and enable access to appropriate support.

Differences in anxieties and social networks in a group-matched sample of autistic and typically developing students transitioning to university.

Transitioning to university can be anxiety-provoking for all students. The relationship between social anxiety, autistic traits and students' social network structure, and perceived support is poorly understood. This study used a group-matched design where autistic students (n = 28) and typically developing students (n = 28) were matched on sex, age (17-19 years), ethnicity, pre-university academic performance and degree subject at university. Autistic students reported greater transition to university worries, and a smaller social network size compared to typically developing students, though perceived similar levels of support from their social networks. Autistic and typically developing students showed differential patterns of association with both autistic traits and social anxiety. Broader clinical and practical implications of findings are discussed.

Evaluating the Role of Autistic Traits, Social Anxiety, and Social Network Changes During Transition to First Year of University in Typically Developing Students and Students on the Autism Spectrum.

This is the first longitudinal study to quantitatively evaluate changes in social network structure (SNS) and perceived social support (PSS) amongst first-year students on the autism spectrum (n = 21) and typically developing (TD; n = 182) students transitioning to university. The relative impact of changes in SNS/PSS, students' social anxiety and autistic traits, on first-year university transition outcomes were also examined. Both groups gained friends over time who provided better support quantity and quality during first year of university. Social anxiety showed long-term differential negative impact on students on the autism spectrum and TD students' academic, social and personal/emotional adjustments, and institutional attachment, suggesting stakeholders should focus on delivering interventions to reduce social anxiety to improve university transition outcomes.

Evaluation of a Transition to University Programme for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Applying to university can be an anxiety-provoking time for many autistic students, though enrolment can be increased by actively involving them in transition planning. We provide an evaluation of a transition to university pilot programme (Autism Summer School) for autistic students (16-19 years) who are seeking to apply/attend university. The content focused on introducing students to various aspects of university life including academic (sample lectures), social (e.g., clubs and societies), and daily living (eating in university canteen and staying in student accommodation). Students' quantitative and qualitative feedback are positive and promising, showing significant reduction across a range of concerns related to transition to university after the programme, as well as general optimism related to starting university.

Developing an Online Tool to Measure Social Network Structure and Perceived Social Support Amongst Autistic Students in Higher Education: A Feasibility Study.

The academic, daily-living, and social challenges all students face during university transition can become magnified for many autistic students, who might struggle to adapt to changes in their social network structure (SNS) and perceived social support (PSS). This study assessed the development, feasibility, and convergent validity of a novel online tool (Social Network and Perceived Social Support-SNaPSS) designed to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate SNS and PSS during university transition. SNaPSS demonstrated good feasibility for completion amongst autistic students (Study 1, n = 10, 17-19 years), and adequate convergent validity against other PSS, autism symptom severity, and social anxiety measures amongst autistic (n = 28) and typically developing students (Study 2, n = 112, 17-19 years). Broader implications of SNaPSS to measure SNS/PSS are discussed.

Altered Neural Connectivity in Females, But Not Males with Autism: Preliminary Evidence for the Female Protective Effect from a Quality-Controlled Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study.

Previous studies using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to investigate white matter (WM) structural connectivity have suggested widespread, although inconsistent WM alterations in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), such as greater reductions in fractional anisotropy (FA). However, findings may lack generalizability because: (a) most have focused solely on the ASD male brain phenotype, and not sex-differences in WM integrity; (b) many lack stringent and transparent data quality control such as controlling for head motion in analysis. This study addressed both issues by using Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) to separately compare WM differences in 81 ASD (56 male, 25 female; 4-21 years old) and 39 typically developing (TD; 23 males, 16 females; 5-18 years old) children and young people, carefully group-matched on sex, age, cognitive abilities, and head motion. ASD males and females were also matched on autism symptom severity. Two independent-raters completed a multistep scan quality assurance to remove images that were significantly distorted by motion artifacts before analysis. ASD females exhibited significant widespread reductions in FA compared to TD females, suggesting altered WM integrity. In contrast, no significant localized or widespread WM differences were found between ASD and TD males. This study highlights the importance of data quality control in DTI, and outlines important sex-differences in WM alterations in ASD females. Future studies can explore the extent to which neural structural differences might underlie sex-differences in ASD behavioral phenotype, and guide clinical interventions to be tailored toward the unique needs of ASD females and males. Autism Res 2019, 12: 1472-1483. © 2019 The Authors. Autism Research published by International Society for Autism Research published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Previous Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) studies have found atypical brain structural connectivity in males with autism, although findings are inconclusive in females with autism. To investigate potential sex-differences, we studied males and females with and without autism who showed a similar level of head movement during their brain scan. We found that females with autism had widespread atypical neural connectivity than females without autism, although not in males, highlighting sex-differences.

Pivotal response treatment for autism spectrum disorder: current perspectives.

Pivotal response treatment (PRT) is an evidence-based behavioral intervention based on applied behavior analysis principles aimed to improve social communication skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). PRT adopts a more naturalistic approach and focuses on using a number of strategies to help increase children's motivation during intervention. Since its conceptualization, PRT has received much empirical support for eliciting therapeutic gains in greater use of functional social communication skills in individuals with ASD. Building upon the empirical evidence supporting PRT, recent advancements have increasingly turned to using interdisciplinary research integrating neuroimaging techniques and behavioral measures to help identify objective biomarkers of treatment, which have two primary purposes. First, neuroimaging results can help characterize how PRT may elicit change, and facilitate partitioning of the heterogeneous profiles of neural mechanisms underlying similar profile of behavioral changes observed over PRT. Second, neuroimaging provides an objective means to both map and track how biomarkers may serve as reliable and sensitive predictors of responder profiles to PRT, assisting clinicians to identify who will most likely benefit from PRT. Together, a better understanding of both mechanisms of change and predictors of responder profile will help PRT to serve as a more precise and targeted intervention for individuals with ASD, thus moving towards the goal of precision medicine and improving quality of care. This review focuses on the recent emerging neuroimaging evidences supporting PRT, offering current perspectives on the importance of interdisciplinary research to help clinicians better understand how PRT works and predict who will respond to PRT.

Parenting a Child with ASD: Comparison of Parenting Style Between ASD, Anxiety, and Typical Development.

Parenting children with ASD has a complex history. Given parents' increasingly pivotal role in children's treatment, it is critical to consider parental style and behaviours. This study (1) compares parenting style of parents of children with ASD, parents of children with anxiety disorders, and parents of typically developing (TD) children and (2) investigates contributors to parenting style within and between groups. Parents of children with anxiety had a distinct parenting style compared to ASD and TD parents. Unique relationships between child symptoms and parenting behaviours emerged across the three groups. Understanding factors that impact parenting between and within clinical groups can guide the development of interventions better tailored to support the needs of parents, particularly parents of children with ASD.

Brief report: Reduced anxiety following Pivotal Response Treatment in young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Up to 40% of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) exhibit co-occurring anxiety symptoms. Despite recent success in mitigating anxiety symptoms in school-aged children with ASD (mean age >9 years) using adapted versions of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, little is known about potential treatment outcomes for younger children. To address the gap in the literature, this open-label study evaluated change in anxiety following a 16-week open-label trial of Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) in children with ASD aged 4-8 years. PRT is a behavioural treatment based on the principles of Applied Behaviour Analysis and has a primary aim of increasing social communication skills in children with ASD through natural reinforcements. To minimise conflation of anxiety and other co-occurring symptoms such as disruptive behaviour and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, we measured anxiety using the autism anxiety subscale of the Child and Adolescent Symptom Inventory (CASI) devised by Sukhodolsky et al. (2008). We observed significant anxiety reduction over 16-weeks of PRT. Furthermore, anxiety reduction was independent of changes in autism symptom severity. This study shows promising results for PRT as an intervention for reducing anxiety in young children with ASD.

Distinct neural bases of disruptive behavior and autism symptom severity in boys with autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Disruptive behavior in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an important clinical problem, but its neural basis remains poorly understood. The current research aims to better understand the neural underpinnings of disruptive behavior in ASD, while addressing whether the neural basis is shared with or separable from that of core ASD symptoms. METHODS: Participants consisted of 48 male children and adolescents: 31 ASD (7 had high disruptive behavior) and 17 typically developing (TD) controls, well-matched on sex, age, and IQ. For ASD participants, autism symptom severity, disruptive behavior, anxiety symptoms, and ADHD symptoms were measured. All participants were scanned while viewing biological motion (BIO) and scrambled motion (SCR). Two fMRI contrasts were analyzed: social perception (BIO > SCR) and Default Mode Network (DMN) deactivation (fixation > BIO). Age and IQ were included as covariates of no interest in all analyses. RESULTS: First, the between-group analyses on BIO > SCR showed that ASD is characterized by hypoactivation in the social perception circuitry, and ASD with high or low disruptive behavior exhibited similar patterns of hypoactivation. Second, the between-group analyses on fixation > BIO showed that ASD with high disruptive behavior exhibited more restricted and less DMN deactivation, when compared to ASD with low disruptive behavior or TD. Third, the within-ASD analyses showed that (a) autism symptom severity (but not disruptive behavior) was uniquely associated with less activation in the social perception regions including the posterior superior temporal sulcus and inferior frontal gyrus; (b) disruptive behavior (but not autism symptom severity) was uniquely associated with less DMN deactivation in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) and lateral parietal cortex; and (c) anxiety symptoms mediated the link between disruptive behavior and less DMN deactivation in both anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and MPFC, while ADHD symptoms mediated the link primarily in ACC. CONCLUSIONS: In boys with ASD, disruptive behavior has a neural basis in reduced DMN deactivation, which is distinct and separable from that of core ASD symptoms, with the latter characterized by hypoactivation in the social perception circuitry. These differential neurobiological markers may potentially serve as neural targets or predictors for interventions when treating disruptive behavior vs. core symptoms in ASD.