Is there any benefit of adding a central nervous system-focused intervention to a manual therapy and home stretching program for people with frozen shoulder? A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Frozen shoulder (FS) is a highly disabling pathology of poorly understood etiology, which is characterized by the presence of intense pain and progressive loss of range of motion. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of adding a central nervous system (CNS)-focused approach to a manual therapy and home stretching program in people with FS. METHODS: A total of 34 patients with a diagnosis of primary FS were randomly allocated to receive a 12-week manual therapy and home stretching program or manual therapy and home stretching program plus a CNS-focused approach including graded motor imagery and sensory discrimination training. The Shoulder Pain and Disability Index score, self-perceived shoulder pain (visual analog scale score), shoulder range of motion, and the Patient-Specific Functional Scale score were measured at baseline, after a 2-week washout period just before starting treatment, after treatment, and at 3 months' follow-up. RESULTS: No significant between-group differences in any outcome were found either after treatment or at 3 months' follow-up. CONCLUSION: A CNS-focused approach provided no additional benefit to a manual therapy and home stretching program in terms of shoulder pain and function in people with FS.

Concurrent Criterion-related Validity, Reliability, and Responsiveness to Treatment of the Figure-of-Four Position for Measurement of Anterior Hip Joint Structures Tightness.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine the intra- and intertester reliability, concurrent criterion-related validity, and responsiveness to treatment of the "figure-of-four" position. METHODS: A total of 52 asymptomatic male soccer players participated in this study. The intraclass correlation coefficient (2, 1) was used to determine intra- and intertester reliability of the figure-of-four position. Pearson product moment correlation coefficients examining the association between the figure-of-four position and goniometric measurements of hip extension and external rotation were used to establish concurrent validity. To evaluate responsiveness to treatment, the figure-of-four position was assessed by a blinded examiner before and immediately after the application of a stretching technique or control intervention. RESULTS: Excellent reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient > 0.75) was obtained for both intra- and intertester reliability of the figure-of-four position. Overall, the figure-of-four position and goniometric measurements of both hip extension and external rotation were significantly correlated. However, no significant treatment effects were observed for the figure-of-four position. CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrated that the figure-of-four position is a reliable and valid way to obtain information on tightness of anterior hip joint structures in male soccer players. However, responsiveness to treatment of the figure-of-four position should be questioned.

Central Pain Processing in Patients with Shoulder Pain: A Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Shoulder pain is a common health problem in which changes in shoulder structure cannot always explain the patient's perceived pain. Central sensitization (CS) might play a role in a subgroup of these patients. METHODS: The literature was systematically reviewed to address the role of CS in patients with shoulder pain. Electronic databases PubMed and Web of Knowledge were searched for relevant studies. RESULTS: Eighteen full-text articles were included, methodological quality was scored, and information was extracted. Studies were clustered on those studying patients with musculoskeletal (MSK) shoulder pain and those studying patients with hemiplegic shoulder pain (HSP). In particular, quantitative sensory testing revealed hyperalgesia for pressure pain in the MSK group, whereas these results were inconsistent in patients with HSP. Conditioned pain modulation was reduced in patients with MSK shoulder pain, but functioned normally in the HSP group. CONCLUSION: This review has shown that great progress has been made toward a better understanding of neurophysiologic pain mechanisms in patients with shoulder pain. The presence of generalized mechanical hyperalgesia, allodynia, and impaired conditioned pain modulation in patients with MSK shoulder pain indicates the involvement of the central nervous system. Widespread somatosensory abnormalities observed in patients with HSP could suggest a central origin for their shoulder pain and predispose patients with HSP to develop CS, although results are inconsistent. Additional research is required adopting different assessment methods (especially dynamic methods) to establish the role of CS in patients with shoulder pain.

Influence of shoulder pain on muscle function: implications for the assessment and therapy of shoulder disorders.

Shoulder pain is often a challenging clinical phenomenon because of the potential mismatch between pathology and the perception of pain. Current evidence clearly emphasizes an incomplete understanding of the nature of shoulder pain. Indeed, the effective diagnosis and treatment of shoulder pain should not only rely upon a detailed knowledge of the peripheral pathologies that may be present in the shoulder, but also on current knowledge of pain neurophysiology. To assess and treat shoulder pain, a comprehensive understanding of the way in which pain is processed is essential. This review reflects modern pain neurophysiology to the shoulder and aims to answer the following questions: why does my shoulder hurt? What is the impact of shoulder pain on muscle function? What are the implications for the clinical examination of the shoulder? And finally, what are the clinical implications for therapy? Despite the increasing amount of research in this area, an in-depth understanding of the bidirectional nociception-motor interaction is still far from being achieved. Many questions remain, especially related to the treatment of nociception-motor interactions.

Prevalence, Incidence, Localization, and Pathophysiology of Myofascial Trigger Points in Patients With Spinal Pain: A Systematic Literature Review.

OBJECTIVE: A systematic review was performed to evaluate the existing evidence related to the prevalence, incidence, localization, and pathophysiology of myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) in patients with spinal (back and neck) pain. METHODS: A systematic review following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines was performed in 2 electronic databases (PubMed and Web of Science) using predefined keywords regarding MTrPs and spinal pain. A "PICOS" questionnaire was used to set up the search strategies and inclusion criteria. Full-text reports concerning MTrPs in patients with back or neck pain, which described their prevalence, incidence, location, or underlying physiopathology were included and screened for methodological quality by 3 independent researchers. Each study was assessed for risk of bias using a checklist derived from the Web site of the Dutch Cochrane Centre. RESULTS: Fourteen articles were retrieved for quality assessment and data extraction. Studies reporting the incidence of MTrPs in patients with spinal pain were lacking. Within spinal pain, patients with neck pain were found to have the highest prevalence rates of MTrPs. The trapezius descendens, levator scapulae, and suboccipitales muscles were the most prevalent locations for active MTrPs in patients with neck pain. Latent MTrPs were present in asymptomatic people, but no significant differences were found in the prevalence rate of latent MTrPs between patients with spinal (neck) pain and healthy controls. The only study investigating prevalence of MTrPs in different localizations of the same muscle reported no significant differences in prevalence between active and latent MTrPs within the trapezius descendens muscle. Studies examining pathophysiological mechanisms underlying MTrPs demonstrated an acidic environment, high concentration of algogenic/inflammatory substances, stiffer muscle tissue, retrograde diastolic blood flows, spontaneous muscle activity at rest, and loss of muscle contractibility in muscles with MTrPs. Altered central processing was also found to play a role in the development of MTrPs. CONCLUSIONS: Myofascial trigger points are a prevalent clinical entity, especially in patients with neck pain. Evidence was not found to support or deny the role of MTrPs in other spinal pain. Compelling evidence supports local mechanisms underlying MTrPs. Future research should unravel the relevance of central mechanisms and investigate the incidence of MTrPs in patients with spinal pain.

The shoulder medial rotation test: an intertester and intratester reliability study in overhead athletes with chronic shoulder pain.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine intertester and intratester reliability of the shoulder medial rotation test (MRT) and reliability differences depending on examiner expertise. METHODS: Seventeen athletes with chronic shoulder pain participated in the study. Four independent observers with different experience levels simultaneously rated MRT performance as "correct" or "incorrect," after a standardized assessment protocol, the same day (for intertester reliability) and in a 7-day interval (for intratester reliability). RESULTS: The intrarater reliability was admissible for 2 experts and one novice, with κ values ranging between 0.32 to 0.76 and poor for one novice (κ <0). Interrater agreement for all 4 assessors demonstrated slight agreement (κ = 0.06; 95% confidence interval: 0.06-0.47), increasing to fair agreement (κ = 0.33; 95% confidence interval: 0.21-0.69) when comparing the MRT findings between the 2 experienced assessors. Practice with the MRT in novices only marginally improved their level of agreement. CONCLUSIONS: Reliability of the MRT for detecting movement control of the shoulder girdle was fair at best for experienced examiners and poor overall. Dexterity and repetitive performance of the test is necessary for correct interpretation of the MRT.

Immediate effects of active versus passive scapular correction on pain and pressure pain threshold in patients with chronic neck pain.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of active vs passive scapular correction on pain and pressure pain threshold at the most symptomatic cervical segment in patients with chronic neck pain. METHODS: Twenty-three volunteers with chronic, idiopathic neck pain were recruited (age, 38.9 ± 14.4 years; sex [man/woman], 3/20; Neck Disability Index, 28.1% ± 9.9%). Subjects were randomly allocated to 2 groups: active scapular correction or passive scapular correction. Pressure pain threshold and pain intensity rated on a numerical rating scale during a posteroanterior glide over the most symptomatic cervical segment were measured before and immediately after the active or passive scapular intervention. RESULTS: Only the active scapular correction produced a reduction in pain (pre, 6.3 ± 1.2; post, 3.7 ± 2.4; P < .05) and increase in pressure pain threshold (pre, 8.7 ± 4.2 kg/cm(2); post, 10.1 ± 3.8 kg/cm(2); P < .05) at the most painful cervical segment. CONCLUSIONS: An active scapular correction exercise resulted in an immediate reduction of pain and pressure pain sensitivity in patients with chronic neck pain and scapular dysfunction.

How do the target concepts of pain science education combined with exercise contribute to the effect on pain intensity and disability in patients with chronic spinal pain? A systematic review and meta-analysis with moderator analysis.

The aim of this study was to assess the moderator effect of the target concepts covered in the Pain science education (PSE) sessions, including both the total amount of target concepts and each individual target concept, on changes in pain intensity and disability in patients with chronic spinal pain (CSP). A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Web of Science and CENTRAL was conducted from inception to March 10, 2024. A random effects model was used for meta-regression analysis. A total of 11 studies were included. The total amount of target concepts of PSE showed a significant correlation with changes in pain intensity (k=11; F=4.45; p=0.04; R2=26.07 %). In terms of each target content, only a significant effect on pain intensity was obtained for 'transfer knowledge about pain to an adaptive behavioural change' (z=-2.35, P =0.019, 95 %CI -3.42 to -0.31) and 'reconceptualization of pain' (z=-2.43, P =0.015, 95 %CI -3.70 to -0.39). No significant effect on disability was found. These results may be useful for optimising the effectiveness of PSE programmes.

Psychological factors are associated with pain extent in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Widespread pain may be related to psychosocial aspects in several musculoskeletal conditions, but the literature on carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is scarce. OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between pain extent and psychological factors (catastrophizing, kinesiophobia, anxiety symptoms, and depression) in people with CTS. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted. The independent variables were: pain intensity, disability (QuickDASH), duration of symptoms, anxiety and depressive symptoms, catastrophizing, and kinesiophobia. The main outcome was: pain extent (% of total area and categories "pain within the median nerve-innervated territory" versus "extra-median nerve pain"). Correlation analysis was performed using Spearman's correlation coefficient. A linear regression model and binary logistic regression (both with forward selection) were performed to determine the main predictors of pain extent. RESULTS: Forty-eight participants were included. A moderate positive correlation was found between catastrophizing (r = 0.455; p = 0.024) and disability (r = 0.448; p = 0.024) with total pain extent area. Regression models indicated that catastrophizing explained 22% of the variance in the pain extent (ß = 0.003; 95% CI: 0.002-0.005), while kinesiophobia was the variable that best explained the distribution of pain in the extra-median territory (R2 Nagelkerke = 0.182). Null or weak correlations were found for the rest of the associations. CONCLUSION: Catastrophizing and kinesiophobia were the main indicators of pain extent in people with CTS. Clinicians are advised to use specific questionnaires to check for the presence of catastrophizing or kinesiophobia in people with CTS and wider pain extension.

Effects of deep cervical flexor training on pressure pain thresholds over myofascial trigger points in patients with chronic neck pain.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of a low-load training program for the deep cervical flexors (DCFs) on pain, disability, and pressure pain threshold (PPT) over cervical myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) in patients with chronic neck pain. METHODS: Thirty patients with chronic idiopathic neck pain participated in a 6-week program of specific training for the DCF, which consisted of active craniocervical flexion performed twice per day (10-20 minutes) for the duration of the trial. Perceived pain and disability (Neck Disability Index, 0-50) and PPT over MTrPs of the upper trapezius, levator scapulae, and splenius capitis muscles were measured at the beginning and end of the training period. RESULTS: After completion of training, there was a significant reduction in Neck Disability Index values (before, 18.2 ± 12.1; after, 13.5 ± 10.6; P < .01). However, no significant changes in PPT were observed over the MTrPs. CONCLUSION: Patients performing DCF training for 6 weeks demonstrated reductions in pain and disability but did not show changes in pressure pain sensitivity over MTrPs in the splenius capitis, levator scapulae, or upper trapezius muscles.

Reductions in kinesiophobia and distress after pain neuroscience education and exercise lead to favourable outcomes: a secondary mediation analysis of a randomized controlled trial in primary care.

ABSTRACT: Pain neuroscience education combined with exercise (PNE + exercise) is an effective treatment for patients with chronic spinal pain. Yet, however, little is known about its underlying therapeutic mechanisms. Thus, this study aimed to provide the first insights by performing a novel mediation analysis approach in a published randomized controlled trial in primary care where PNE + exercise was compared with standard physiotherapy. Four mediators (catastrophizing, kinesiophobia, central sensitization-related distress, and pain intensity) measured at postintervention and 3 outcomes (disability, health-related quality of life, and pain medication intake) measured at 6-month follow-up were included into the analysis. The postintervention measure of each outcome was also introduced as a competing candidate mediator in each respective model. In addition, we repeated the analysis by including all pairwise mediator-mediator interactions to allow the effect of each mediator to differ based on the other mediators' values. Postintervention improvements in disability, medication intake, and health-related quality of life strongly mediated PNE + exercise effects on each of these outcomes at 6-month follow-up, respectively. Reductions in disability and medication intake were also mediated by reductions in kinesiophobia and central sensitization-related distress. Reductions in kinesiophobia also mediated gains in the quality of life. Changes in catastrophizing and pain intensity did not mediate improvements in any outcome. The mediation analyses with mediator-mediator interactions suggested a potential effect modification rather than causal independence among the mediators. The current results, therefore, support the PNE framework to some extent as well as highlight the need for implementing the recent approaches for mediation analysis to accommodate dependencies among the mediators.

The optimal dose of pain neuroscience education added to an exercise programme for patients with chronic spinal pain: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.

ABSTRACT: Pain neuroscience education (PNE) has shown promising results in the management of patients with chronic spinal pain (CSP). However, no previous review has determined the optimal dose of PNE added to an exercise programme to achieve clinically relevant improvements. The aim was to determine the dose-response association between PNE added to an exercise programme and improvements in pain intensity and disability in patients with CSP. A systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library was conducted from inception to April 19, 2023. The exposure variable (dosage) was the total minutes of PNE. Outcome measures included pain intensity, disability, quality of life, pressure pain thresholds, and central sensitization inventory. Data extraction, risk-of-bias assessment, and certainty of evidence were performed by 2 independent reviewers. The dose-response relationship was assessed using a restricted cubic spline model. Twenty-six randomised controlled trials with 1852 patients were included. Meta-analysis revealed a statistically significant effect in favour of PNE on pain intensity and disability. In addition, a dose of 200 and 150 minutes of PNE added to an exercise programme was estimated to exceed the minimum clinically important difference described in the literature for pain intensity (-2.61 points, 95% CI = -3.12 to -2.10) and disability (-6.84 points, 95% CI = -7.98 to -5.70), respectively. The pooled effect of the isolated exercise was small. These findings may be useful in optimising the most appropriate PNE dose to achieve clinically relevant improvements in patients with CSP.

Profiling and Association over Time between Disability and Pain Features in Patients with Chronic Nonspecific Neck Pain: A Longitudinal Study.

OBJECTIVES: To longitudinally investigate the relationships between neck/arm disability and pain profile measures in individuals with chronic nonspecific neck pain (NSNP) at baseline, one month, and six months after a standardized physiotherapy intervention. A secondary aim was to compare pain sensitivity of individuals with chronic NSNP at baseline to healthy controls. METHODS: A total of sixty-eight individuals with chronic NSNP and healthy controls were recruited. Neck disability index (NDI), the 11-item disabilities of the arm, shoulder, and hand questionnaire (QuickDASH), temporal summation (TS), pressure pain thresholds (PPTs), pain intensity and pain extent were assessed in individuals with chronic NSNP. For the cross-sectional assessment, TS and PPTs were compared to healthy controls. RESULTS: After following a standardized physiotherapy intervention, local and distal PPTs to the neck region decreased at one and six month follow-ups, respectively. Pain extent decreased at one and six months. Furthermore, a positive correlation between neck/arm disability and pain intensity was found at baseline, whereas moderate positive correlations (e.g., between NDI and pain extent) at baseline, one and six month follow-ups and negative correlations at six months (e.g., between arm disability and PPTs) were found. DISCUSSION: Overall, these findings indicate that pain sensitivity can worsen following treatment despite reduced pain extent and unchanged neck disability and pain intensity scores over a six-month period in individuals with chronic NSNP.

The Relationship between Daily Physical Activity, Psychological Factors, and Vegetative Symptoms in Women with Fibromyalgia: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study.

Nowadays, there is evidence that relates the amount of physical activity, as well as the impact of psychological factors, to the intensity of symptoms present in patients with fibromyalgia (FM). However, there are no studies which correlate the level of association of physical activity, psychological factors and vegetative symptoms in the FM population. The study has a cross-sectional observational design with 41 participants being recruited from a private clinic and rehabilitation service. The Autonomic Symptom Profile (Compass-31) to assess vegetative symptoms, the GODIN questionnaire to evaluate the level of leisure activity, and the pain catastrophizing scale, Tampa Kinesiophobia Scale and Self-Efficacy Scale to assess psychological factors, were used. A low and significant level of association was found between pain catastrophizing (PCS) and Kinesiophobia (r = 0.398; p < 0.01), as well as with catastrophizing and vegetative symptoms (r = 0.428; p < 0.05). Furthermore, a low and significant level of association was also found between self-efficacy and vegetative symptoms (r = 0.397; p < 0.05). No association was found between the level of daily physical activity (measured by the Godin Leisure questionnaire) and vegetative symptoms, nor with any psychological factor studied. There is an association between vegetative symptoms and psychological factors. Nevertheless, more research which takes other factors into account, such as lifestyle and nutritional, is needed.

Changes in Pain Sensitivity in Treatment for Breast Cancer: A 12-Month Follow-Up Case Series.

This study aimed to investigate changes in the pain sensory profile of women with breast cancer. Five women with unilateral breast cancer were enrolled. Participants were assessed with direct (quantitative sensory testing, QST) and indirect measures of pain sensitization (self-reported central sensitization inventory, CSI) at baseline (before surgery), 1 week after surgery, and at 1, 6, 9, and 12 months post-surgery. In the event of pain occurrence, the Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms and Signs was also used. Nociceptive pain was the predominant pain mechanism in the postoperative period, while an increase in sensitization predominated one year after breast cancer surgery, especially in those participants who had received more treatment procedures. The participants who received more therapies for breast cancer experienced persistent pain and a higher level of sensitization. An assessment protocol including direct measurements (QST) and indirect measurement (self-reported CSI) allows for detecting changes in pain sensitivity, which can be useful for characterizing and/or predicting pain before, during, and up to one year following surgical interventions for breast cancer.

A Central Nervous System Focused Treatment Program for People with Frozen Shoulder: A Feasibility Study.

Background: Frozen shoulder (FS) is a highly disabling pathology of poorly understood etiology, which is characterized by the presence of intense pain and progressive loss of range of motion (ROM). The aim of this study is to evaluate the feasibility and clinical impact of a CNS-focused treatment program for people with FS. Methods: 10 subjects with primary FS received a 10-week CNS-focused intervention including sensory discrimination training and graded motor imagery techniques delivered as clinic sessions (60 min) and home therapy (30 min five times per week). Measurements were taken at baseline, after a 2-week "washout" period, after treatment, and at three months follow-up. The Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI) was the primary outcome. Secondary measures were feasibility-related outcomes, self-reported shoulder pain, active and passive range of motion, two-point discrimination threshold (TPDT), left/right judgement task (LRJT), fear-avoidance (Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia), pain catastrophization (Pain Catastrophizing Scale), and pain sensitization (Central Sensitization Inventory). A Student's t-test was used to assess the "washout" period. A repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate within-subjects' differences for all outcome measures in the different assessment periods and a pairwise analysis was used to compare between the different assessment points. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: 70% of participants completed the treatment. No significant changes were found after "washout" period except for TPDT (p = 0.02) and SPADI (p = 0.025). Improvements in self-reported shoulder pain (p = 0.028) and active shoulder flexion (p = 0.016) were shown after treatment (p = 0.028) and follow-up (p = 0.001) and in SPADI at follow-up (p = 0.008). No significant changes were observed in TPDT, LRJT, fear-avoidance, pain catastrophization, and pain sensitization. Conclusions: a CNS-focused treatment program might be a suitable approach to improve pain and disability in FS, but further research is needed to draw firm conclusions.

Effectiveness, cost-utility and physiological underpinnings of the FIBROWALK multicomponent therapy in online and outdoor format in individuals with fibromyalgia: Study protocol of a randomized, controlled trial (On&Out study).

Introduction: The On&Out study is aimed at assessing the effectiveness, cost-utility and physiological underpinnings of the FIBROWALK multicomponent intervention conducted in two different settings: online (FIBRO-On) or outdoors (FIBRO-Out). Both interventions have proved to be efficacious in the short-term but there is no study assessing their comparative effectiveness nor their long-term effects. For the first time, this study will also evaluate the cost-utility (6-month time-horizon) and the effects on immune-inflammatory biomarkers and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels of both interventions. The objectives of this 6-month, randomized, controlled trial (RCT) are 1) to examine the effectiveness and cost-utility of adding FIBRO-On or FIBRO-Out to Treatment-As-Usual (TAU) for individuals with fibromyalgia (FM); 2) to identify pre-post differences in blood biomarker levels in the three study arms and 3) to analyze the role of process variables as mediators of 6-month follow-up clinical outcomes. Methods and analysis: Participants will be 225 individuals with FM recruited at Vall d'Hebron University Hospital (Barcelona, Spain), randomly allocated to one of the three study arms: TAU vs. TAU + FIBRO-On vs. TAU + FIBRO-Out. A comprehensive assessment to collect functional impairment, pain, fatigue, depressive and anxiety symptoms, perceived stress, central sensitization, physical function, sleep quality, perceived cognitive dysfunction, kinesiophobia, pain catastrophizing, psychological inflexibility in pain and pain knowledge will be conducted pre-intervention, at 6 weeks, post-intervention (12 weeks), and at 6-month follow-up. Changes in immune-inflammatory biomarkers [i.e., IL-6, CXCL8, IL-17A, IL-4, IL-10, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)] and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor will be evaluated in 40 participants in each treatment arm (total n = 120) at pre- and post-treatment. Quality of life and direct and indirect costs will be evaluated at baseline and at 6-month follow-up. Linear mixed-effects regression models using restricted maximum likelihood, mediational models and a full economic evaluation applying bootstrapping techniques, acceptability curves and sensitivity analyses will be computed. Ethics and dissemination: This study has been approved by the Ethics Committee of the Vall d'Hebron Institute of Research. The results will be actively disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, conference presentations, social media and various community engagement activities. Trial registration number NCT05377567 (clinicaltrials.gov).

Conditioned Pain Modulation Is Not Impaired in Individuals with Frozen Shoulder: A Case-Control Study.

Frozen shoulder (FS) is a poorly understood condition resulting in substantial shoulder pain and mobility deficits. The mechanisms behind FS are not yet fully understood, but, similar to other persistent pain states, central pain mechanisms may contribute to ongoing symptoms in this population. The objective of this research was to investigate conditioned pain modulation (CPM) in people with FS compared with pain-free individuals. A total of 64 individuals with FS and 64 healthy volunteers participated in this cross-sectional study. CPM was assessed by using the pressure pain threshold (PPT) and an occlusion cuff (tourniquet test) as the test and conditioning stimulus, respectively. The absolute and percentage of change in PPT (CPM effect) as well as pain profiles (pro-nociceptive vs. anti-nociceptive) of individuals with FS and healthy controls were calculated. No significant differences in the absolute change in the PPT or CPM effect were found in people with FS compared to pain-free controls. Moreover, no between-group differences in the percentage of subjects with pro-nociceptive and anti-nociceptive pain profiles were observed. These results suggest that endogenous pain inhibition is normally functioning in people with FS. Altered central pain-processing mechanisms may thus not be a characteristic of this population.

Effects of dry needling of the obliquus capitis inferior on sensorimotor control and cervical mobility in people with neck pain: A double-blind, randomized sham-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Impairments of sensorimotor control relating to head and eye movement control and postural stability are often present in people with neck pain. The upper cervical spine and particularly the obliquus capitis inferior (OCI) play an important proprioceptive role; and its impairment may alter cervical sensorimotor control. Dry needling (DN) is a valid technique to target the OCI. OBJECTIVES: To investigate if a single DN session of the OCI muscle improves head and eye movement control-related outcomes, postural stability, and cervical mobility in people with neck pain. METHODS: Forty people with neck pain were randomly assigned to receive a single session of DN or sham needling of the OCI. Cervical joint position error (JPE), cervical movement sense, standing balance and oculomotor control were examined at baseline, immediately post-intervention, and at one-week follow-up. Active cervical rotation range of motion and the flexion rotation test were used to examine the global and upper cervical rotation mobility, respectively. RESULTS: Linear mixed-models revealed that the DN group showed a decrease of JPE immediately post-intervention compared to the sham group (mean difference [MD]= -0.93°; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -1.85, -0.02) which was maintained at one-week follow-up (MD= -1.64°; 95%CI: -2.85, -0.43). No effects on standing balance or cervical movement sense were observed in both groups. Upper cervical mobility showed an increase immediately after DN compared to the sham group (MD= 5.14°; 95%CI: 0.77, 9.75) which remained stable at one-week follow-up (MD= 6.98°; 95%CI: 1.31, 12.40). Both group showed an immediate increase in global cervical mobility (MD= -0.14°; 95%CI: -5.29, 4.89). CONCLUSION: The results from the current study suggest that a single session of DN of the OCI reduces JPE deficits and increases upper cervical mobility in patients with neck pain. Future trials should examine if the addition of this technique to sensorimotor control training add further benefits in the management of neck pain.

The Spatial Extent of Pain Is Associated with Pain Intensity, Catastrophizing and Some Measures of Central Sensitization in People with Frozen Shoulder.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore the spatial extent of pain and its association with clinical symptoms, psychological features, and pain sensitization in people with frozen shoulder (FS). Forty-eight individuals with FS completed pain drawings (PDs) and reported their clinical symptoms including pain intensity (Visual Analogue Scale) and shoulder disability (Shoulder Pain and Disability Index). Moreover, pain sensitization measurements (pressure pain thresholds, temporal summation, conditioned pain modulation, and Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI)) were assessed. Psychological features were assessed by Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) and Pain Vigilance and Awareness Questionnaire. Pain frequency maps were generated, Margolis rating scale was used for pain location, and Spearman correlation coefficients were computed. The mean (SD) pain extent was 12.5% (6.7%) and the most common painful area was the anterolateral shoulder region (100%). Women presented a more widespread pain distribution compared with men. Significant positive associations were obtained between pain extent and current pain intensity (rs = 0.421, p < 0.01), PCS (rs = 0.307, p < 0.05) and CSI (rs = 0.358, p < 0.05). The anterolateral region of the shoulder was the most common painful area in people with FS. Women with FS presented more extended areas of pain; and a more widespread distribution of pain was correlated with higher levels of pain, pain catastrophizing and pain sensitization.