The current state of training in pain medicine fellowships: An Association of Pain Program Directors (APPD) survey of program directors.

INTRODUCTION: The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) approved the first pain medicine fellowship programs over three decades ago, designed around a pharmacological philosophy. Following that, there has been a rise in the transition of pain medicine education toward a multidisciplinary interventional model based on a tremendous surge of contemporaneous literature in these areas. This trend has created variability in clinical experience and education amongst accredited pain medicine programs with minimal literature evaluating the differences and commonalities in education and experience of different pain medicine fellowships through Program Director (PD) experiences. This study aims to gather insight from pain medicine fellowship program directors across the country to assess clinical and interventional training, providing valuable perspectives on the future of pain medicine education. METHODS: This study involved 56 PDs of ACGME-accredited pain fellowship programs in the United States. The recruitment process included three phases: advanced notification, invitation, and follow-up to maximize response rate. Participants completed a standard online questionnaire, covering various topics such as subcategory fields, online platforms for supplemental education, clinical experience, postgraduate practice success, and training adequacy. RESULTS: Surveys were completed by 39/56 (69%) standing members of the Association of Pain Program Directors (APPD). All PDs allowed fellows to participate in industry-related and professional society-related procedural workshops, with 59% encouraging these workshops. PDs emphasized the importance of integrity, professionalism, and diligence for long-term success. Fifty-four percent of PDs expressed the need for extension of fellowship training to avoid supplemental education by industry or pain/spine societies. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the challenge of providing adequate training in all Pain Medicine subtopics within a 12-month pain medicine fellowship. PDs suggest the need for additional training for fellows and discuss the importance of curriculum standardization.

Efficacy and Safety of Cervical and High-Thoracic Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation Therapy for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome of the Upper Extremities.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to evaluate analgesic and safety considerations for high thoracic and cervical dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuromodulation for complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). We hypothesized that DRG neuromodulation would provide sustained analgesia with complications like that of low thoracic or lumbar electrode implantation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A single-center, retrospective study was conducted of patients with CRPS I or II of the upper extremities, refractory to previous therapies, who were treated with DRG neuromodulation in the upper thoracic and cervical spine. The primary outcome was successful DRG therapy, defined as ≥ 50% pain relief on a Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) 0 to 10 pain scale at six months after implantation. A secondary outcome was a reduction in daily opioid use after DRG therapy. RESULTS: After a DRG stimulation trial, 17 of 20 patients (85%) had ≥ 50% improvement in NRS pain and underwent a permanent pulse generator implant, with 100% endorsing ≥ 50% pain relief at six months. Mean NRS pain scores before DRG neuromodulation were 9.3 ± 1.1, with a mean reduction of 5.5 (95% CI, 4.5-6.6; p < 0.001) at six months. Ten patients were taking opioids at baseline; the median (interquartile range) dose was 45 mg (23 to 120) morphine equivalents (MME), which was reduced to 20 MME (15 to 40) at six months. The median reduction in daily MME use was -25 (95% CI, -100 to 20; p = 0.099). Six of 20 patients (30%) experienced a complication: three had lead migration; two experienced paresthesias; and one had a reduction in shoulder mobility. One patient had symptoms of a reversible spinal cord compression immediately after implant, requiring emergent electrode removal. CONCLUSIONS: DRG neuromodulation for patients with CRPS of the upper extremities produced clinically important analgesia and reduced opioid use for ≥ six months but was associated with one serious complication.

The Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC): Recommendations for Surgical Technique for Spinal Cord Stimulation.

INTRODUCTION: The field of neurostimulation for the treatment of chronic pain is a rapidly developing area of medicine. Although neurostimulation therapies have advanced significantly as a result of technologic improvements, surgical planning, device placement, and postoperative care are of equal importance to optimize outcomes. This Neurostimulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) project intends to provide evidence-based guidance for these often-overlooked areas of neurostimulation practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Authors were chosen based on their clinical expertise, familiarity with the peer-reviewed literature, research productivity, and contributions to the neuromodulation literature. Section leaders supervised literature searches of MEDLINE, BioMed Central, Current Contents Connect, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed from the last NACC publication in 2017 to the present. Identified studies were graded using the United States Preventive Services Task Force criteria for evidence and certainty of net benefit. Recommendations are based on evidence strength and consensus when evidence was scant. RESULTS: This NACC project provides guidance on preoperative assessment, intraoperative techniques, and postoperative management in the form of consensus points with supportive evidence. These results are based on grade of evidence, strength of consensus, and expert opinion. CONCLUSIONS: The NACC has given guidance for a surgical plan that encompasses the patient journey from the planning stage through the surgical experience and postoperative care. The overall recommendations are designed to improve efficacy and the safety of patients undergoing these neuromodulation procedures and are intended to apply throughout the international community.

Dorsal root ganglion stimulation device explantation: A multicenter pooled data analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRG-S) is a relatively new neuromodulation modality. Therefore, data on long-term device explantation rates is limited. This investigation aimed to assess DRG-S device explantation rates at long-term follow-up. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed individuals implanted with DRG-S in four pain centers from different continuous periods between April 2016 to September 2020. We recorded patient demographics, diagnoses, duration to explantation or last follow-up, treatment complications, and failure etiologies. RESULTS: A total of 249 patients with 756 leads and a mean 27-month follow-up were included. The mean age was 55 ± 15 years; 148 (63%) were female. Leading diagnoses were CRPS (n = 106, 43%), followed by FBSS (n = 64, 26%), and non-surgical low back pain (n = 23, 9%). The explantation rate was ~2% per year (n = 10 total). At explantation, the average time from implantation was 13 ± 10 months. Six patients were explanted for inadequate pain relief. Two patients were explanted due to device-related complications. One patient was explanted secondary to infection and subsequently reimplanted. Five explanted patients experienced a therapy-related complication before eventual explantation: one transient post-procedural neuritis and pocket site pain, one lead fracture, two lead migrations, and one experienced a fracture, a migration, and pocket site pain. DISCUSSION: This large retrospective study of DRG-S revealed a low therapy-termination rate. The rate of infection leading to explantation was objectively very low at 0.4%. The leading cause of explantation was inadequate pain relief. Explanted patients often had a therapy-related complication. Therefore, minimizing adverse treatment events may reduce ultimate explantation rates.

Lead migration and fracture rate in dorsal root ganglion stimulation using anchoring and non-anchoring techniques: A multicenter pooled data analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRG-S) is a neuromodulation technique introduced in the last decade with evolving implant methods. Initial prospective research found low incidences of lead migration and lead fracture with DRG-S. However, several recent studies have highlighted high lead migration and lead fracture rates with DRG-S. We investigated the influence of lead anchoring on migrations and fractures. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review between 2016 and 2020 of individuals implanted with DRG-S leads by 4 experienced implanters. The implanters independently changed their standard practice regarding lead anchoring over time, with opposing trends (no anchoring > anchoring, anchoring > no anchoring). We compared lead migration and lead fracture rates between anchored and unanchored DRG-S leads in the entire study cohort. Cox regression was performed on lead migration and fracture distributions. RESULTS: We included 756 leads (n = 565 anchored and n = 191 unanchored) from 249 patients. In unanchored leads, migration occurred in 16 leads (8.4%) from 13 patients (21.0%). In anchored leads, migration occurred in 8 leads (1.4%) from 5 patients (2.7%). Fracture in unanchored leads occurred in 6 leads (3.1%) from 6 patients (9.7%). Fractures in anchored leads occurred in 11 leads (1.9%) from 9 patients (4.8%). The migration survival distributions for the anchored and unanchored leads were statistically significantly different (p < 0.01) with decreased survival for unanchored leads (hazard ratio = 5.8, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.2-15.5). DISCUSSION: We found that anchoring DRG-S leads significantly reduces lead migration when compared to leads placed without an anchor. There was no significant difference in fracture rate between anchored and unanchored leads.

DRG FOCUS: A Multicenter Study Evaluating Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation and Predictors for Trial Success.

INTRODUCTION: Dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRGS) is a powerful tool in the treatment of chronic, neuropathic pain. The premise of DRGS is similar to that of conventional spinal cord stimulation (cSCS), however, there is more variability in how it can be utilized. While it is this variability that likely gives it its versatility, DRGS is not as straightforward to implement as cSCS. The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of DRGS on a broad number of diagnoses, determine which dorsal root ganglia were associated with better outcomes for particular body parts/diagnoses, and evaluate what factors/parameters were associated with higher rates of trial success. METHODS: This is a physician initiated, multicenter retrospective registry of 217 patients trialed with DRGS. Data were collected via an online questionnaire that assessed specifics regarding the patient's pain, distribution, size, and response to treatment. The data were analyzed to see if there were certain diagnoses and/or parameters that were more or less associated with trial success. RESULTS: DRGS was found to be an effective treatment in all diagnoses evaluated within this study, most of which had statistically significant improvements in pain. The most important predictor of trial success was the amount of painful area covered by paresthesias during the programing phase. The number of leads utilized had a direct and indirect impact on trial success. Pain in the distribution of a specific peripheral nerve responded best and there was no statistical difference based on what body part was being treated. CONCLUSION: DRGS can be an effective treatment for a variety of neuropathic pain syndromes, in addition to CRPS. It is recommended that a minimum of 2 leads should be utilized per area being treated. In addition, this therapy was shown to be equally efficacious in any body part/region so long as the area being treated is focal and not widespread.

The Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee on Best Practices for Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation.

INTRODUCTION: The Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC) is dedicated to improving the safety and efficacy of neuromodulation and thus improving the lives of patients undergoing neuromodulation therapies. With continued innovations in neuromodulation comes the need for evolving reviews of best practices. Dorsal root ganglion (DRG) stimulation has significantly improved the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), among other conditions. Through funding and organizational leadership by the International Neuromodulation Society (INS), the NACC reconvened to develop the best practices consensus document for the selection, implantation and use of DRG stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain syndromes. METHODS: The NACC performed a comprehensive literature search of articles about DRG published from 1995 through June, 2017. A total of 2538 article abstracts were then reviewed, and selected articles graded for strength of evidence based on scoring criteria established by the US Preventive Services Task Force. Graded evidence was considered along with clinical experience to create the best practices consensus and recommendations. RESULTS: The NACC achieved consensus based on peer-reviewed literature and experience to create consensus points to improve patient selection, guide surgical methods, improve post-operative care, and make recommendations for management of patients treated with DRG stimulation. CONCLUSION: The NACC recommendations are intended to improve patient care in the use of this evolving therapy for chronic pain. Clinicians who choose to follow these recommendations may improve outcomes.

The MIST Guidelines: The Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Consensus Group Guidelines for Minimally Invasive Spine Treatment.

BACKGROUND: Lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) can lead to compression of neural elements and manifest as low back and leg pain. LSS has traditionally been treated with a variety of conservative (pain medications, physical therapy, epidural spinal injections) and invasive (surgical decompression) options. Recently, several minimally invasive procedures have expanded the treatment options. METHODS: The Lumbar Spinal Stenosis Consensus Group convened to evaluate the peer-reviewed literature as the basis for making minimally invasive spine treatment (MIST) recommendations. Eleven consensus points were clearly defined with evidence strength, recommendation grade, and consensus level using U.S. Preventive Services Task Force criteria. The Consensus Group also created a treatment algorithm. Literature searches yielded 9 studies (2 randomized controlled trials [RCTs]; 7 observational studies, 4 prospective and 3 retrospective) of minimally invasive spine treatments, and 1 RCT for spacers. RESULTS: The LSS treatment choice is dependent on the degree of stenosis; spinal or anatomic level; architecture of the stenosis; severity of the symptoms; failed, past, less invasive treatments; previous fusions or other open surgical approaches; and patient comorbidities. There is Level I evidence for percutaneous image-guided lumbar decompression as superior to lumbar epidural steroid injection, and 1 RCT supported spacer use in a noninferiority study comparing 2 spacer products currently available. CONCLUSIONS: MISTs should be used in a judicious and algorithmic fashion to treat LSS, based on the evidence of efficacy and safety in the peer-reviewed literature. The MIST Consensus Group recommend that these procedures be used in a multimodal fashion as part of an evidence-based decision algorithm.

Approaches to neuropathic amputation-related pain: narrative review of surgical, interventional, and medical treatments.

BACKGROUND/IMPORTANCE: Neuropathic amputation-related pain can consist of phantom limb pain (PLP), residual limb pain (RLP), or a combination of both pathologies. Estimated of lifetime prevalence of pain and after amputation ranges between 8% and 72%. OBJECTIVE: This narrative review aims to summarize the surgical and non-surgical treatment options for amputation-related neuropathic pain to aid in developing optimized multidisciplinary and multimodal treatment plans that leverage multidisciplinary care. EVIDENCE REVIEW: A search of the English literature using the following keywords was performed: PLP, amputation pain, RLP. Abstract and full-text articles were evaluated for surgical treatments, medical management, regional anesthesia, peripheral block, neuromodulation, spinal cord stimulation, dorsal root ganglia, and peripheral nerve stimulation. FINDINGS: The evidence supporting most if not all interventions for PLP are inconclusive and lack high certainty. Targeted muscle reinnervation and regional peripheral nerve interface are the leading surgical treatment options for reducing neuroma formation and reducing PLP. Non-surgical options include pharmaceutical therapy, regional interventional techniques and behavioral therapies that can benefit certain patients. There is a growing evidence that neuromodulation at the spinal cord or the dorsal root ganglia and/or peripheral nerves can be an adjuvant therapy for PLP. CONCLUSIONS: Multimodal approaches combining pharmacotherapy, surgery and invasive neuromodulation procedures would appear to be the most promising strategy for preventive and treating PLP and RLP. Future efforts should focus on cross-disciplinary education to increase awareness of treatment options exploring best practices for preventing pain at the time of amputation and enhancing treatment of chronic postamputation pain.

Safety, Efficacy, and Durability of Outcomes: Results from SECURE: A Single Arm, Multicenter, Prospective, Clinical Study on a Minimally Invasive Posterior Sacroiliac Fusion Allograft Implant.

Introduction: Research suggests that sacroiliac joint (SIJ) dysfunction is responsible for 15% to 30% of reported low back pain cases. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in SIJ fusion using minimally invasive surgery (MIS) due to safety. Initially, devices designed for MIS were intended for lateral approaches. A minimally invasive sacroiliac fusion implant for use with a posterior approach has been developed and is regulated for clinical use under the regulatory framework required for human cells, tissues, or cellular or tissue-based products (HCT/Ps). Methods: A multi-center, prospective, single-arm study was launched after initial studies provided preliminary data to support safety, efficacy, and durability of this minimally invasive sacroiliac posterior fusion LinQ allograft implant (NCT04423120). Preliminary results were reported previously. Final results for the full participant cohort are presented here. Results: One-hundred and fifty-nine (159) participants were enrolled across 16 investigational sites in the US between January 2020 and March 2022. One-hundred and twenty-two (122) participants were implanted. At the 1-month follow-up, 82 participants satisfied all criteria for the composite responder endpoint, representing 73.2% of the study cohort. These results stayed consistent across the remaining study timepoints with 66.0%, 74.4%, and 73.5% of participants classified as responders at the 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-up visits, respectively. VAS scores were significantly reduced (p < 0.0001) and ODI scores were significantly improved (p < 0.0001). All domains of the PROMIS-29 were also significantly improved (all p's <0.0001). Only one procedure-related serious AE was reported in the study. Conclusion: These results suggest that the posterior approach LinQ Implant System is a safe and effective treatment for sacroiliac joint dysfunction at 12 months, with results that are favorable compared to outcomes reported for an FDA-cleared lateral approach.

Informed Consent for Spine Procedures: Best Practice Guideline from the American Society of Pain and Neuroscience (ASPN).

Introduction: The evolution of treatment options for painful spinal disorders in diverse settings has produced a variety of approaches to patient care among clinicians from multiple professional backgrounds. The American Society of Pain and Neuroscience (ASPN) Best Practice group identified a need for a multidisciplinary guideline regarding appropriate and effective informed consent processes for spine procedures. Objective: The ASPN Informed Consent Guideline was developed to provide clinicians with a comprehensive evaluation of patient consent practices during the treatment of spine pathology. Methods: After a needs assessment, ASPN determined that best practice regarding proper informed consent for spinal procedures was needed and a process of selecting faculty was developed based on expertise, diversity, and knowledge of the subject matter. A comprehensive literature search was conducted and when appropriate, evidence grading was performed. Recommendations were based on evidence when available, and when limited, based on consensus opinion. Results: Following a comprehensive review and analysis of the available evidence, the ASPN Informed Consent Guideline group rated the literature to assist with specification of best practice regarding patient consent during the management of spine disorders. Conclusion: Careful attention to informed consent is critical in achieving an optimal outcome and properly educating patients. This process involves a discussion of risks, advantages, and alternatives to treatment. As the field of interventional pain and spine continues to grow, it is imperative that clinicians effectively educate patients and obtain comprehensive informed consent for invasive procedures. This consent should be tailored to the patient's specific needs to ensure an essential recognition of patient autonomy and reasonable expectations of treatment.

Pain Education and Knowledge (PEAK) Consensus Guidelines for Neuromodulation: A Proposal for Standardization in Fellowship and Training Programs.

The need to be competent in neuromodulation is and should be a prerequisite prior to completing a fellowship in interventional pain medicine. Unfortunately, many programs lack acceptable candidates for these advanced therapies, and fellows may not receive adequate exposure to neuromodulation procedures. The American Society of Pain and Neuroscience (ASPN) desires to create a consensus of experts to set a minimum standard of competence for neurostimulation procedures, including spinal cord stimulation (SCS), dorsal root ganglion stimulation (DRG-S), and peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS). The executive board of ASPN accepted nominations for colleagues with excellence in the subject matter of neuromodulation and physician education. This diverse group used peer-reviewed literature and, based on grading of evidence and expert opinion, developed critical consensus guides for training that all accredited fellowship programs should adopt. For each consensus point, transparency and recusal were used to eliminate bias, and an author was nominated for evidence grading oversight and bias control. Pain Education and Knowledge (PEAK) Consensus Guidelines for Neuromodulation sets a standard for neuromodulation training in pain fellowship training programs. The consensus panel has determined several recommendations to improve care in the United States for patients undergoing neuromodulation. As neuromodulation training in the United States has evolved dramatically, these therapies have become ubiquitous in pain medicine. Unfortunately, fellowship programs and the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) pain program requirements have not progressed training to match the demands of modern advancements. PEAK sets a new standard for fellowship training and presents thirteen practice areas vital for physician competence in neuromodulation.

Six Month Interim Outcomes from SECURE: A Single arm, Multicenter, Prospective, Clinical Study on a Novel Minimally Invasive Posterior Sacroiliac Fusion Device.

INTRODUCTION: Sacroiliac joint disease is a prominent diagnosis across the world. A novel fixation technique employing a posterior approach, single point, bone allograft transfixation has proven to be helpful anecdotally. The purpose of this is study is to investigate prospectively the safety and efficacy of this approach. METHODS: A multicenter, prospective, single arm study was performed after patient identification and treatment with the novel posterior fusion, single-point transfixation system and followed for 24 months. Target enrollment is 100 patients. Interim results on the first 69 consecutive patients at 6 months is presented. Primary endpoint at 6-month analysis was Pain Intensity reduction by visual analogue scale and functional improvement by Oswestry Disability Index. Adverse events were assessed for safety analysis. RESULTS: In total, 69 patients were identified for this analysis. At 6 months, a mean improvement of 34.9 was identified by a reduction in VAS and functional improvement was demonstrated by a mean reduction in ODI of 17.7. There were three adverse events, all unrelated to the device. CONCLUSION: The posterior single point transfixation is safe and efficacious for the treatment of sacroiliac joint dysfunction with statistical improvements in pain and function.

Evidence-based interventional pain medicine according to clinical diagnoses. 16. Complex regional pain syndrome.

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), formerly known as reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a pain syndrome with an unclear pathophysiology and unpredictable clinical course. The disease is often therapy resistant, the natural course not always favorable. The diagnosis of CRPS is based on signs and symptoms derived from medical history and physical examination. Pharmacological pain management and physical rehabilitation of limb function are the main pillars of therapy and should be started as early as possible. If, however, there is no improvement of limb function and persistent severe pain, interventional pain management techniques may be considered. Intravenous regional blocks with guanethidine did not prove superior to placebo but frequent side effects occurred.Therefore this technique receives a negative recommendation (2 A-). Sympathetic block is the interventional treatment of first choice and has a 2 B+ rating. Ganglion stellatum (stellate ganglion) block with repeated local anesthetic injections or by radiofrequency denervation after positive diagnostic block is documented in prospective and retrospective trials in patients suffering from upper limb CRPS. Lumbar sympathetic blocks can be performed with repeated local anesthetic injections. For a more prolonged lumbar sympathetic block radiofrequency treatment is preferred over phenol neurolysis because effects are comparable whereas the risk for side effects is lower (2 B+). For patients suffering from CRPS refractory to conventional treatment and sympathetic blocks, plexus brachialis block or continuous epidural infusion analgesia coupled with exercise therapy may be tried (2 C+). Spinal cord stimulation is recommended if other treatments fail to improve pain and dysfunction (2 B+). Alternatively peripheral nerve stimulation can be considered, preferentially in study conditions (2 C+).

Efficacy of transverse tripolar spinal cord stimulator for the relief of chronic low back pain from failed back surgery.

BACKGROUND: Failed back surgery syndrome is a common clinical entity for which spinal cord stimulation has been found to be an effective mode of analgesia, but with variable success rates. OBJECTIVE: To determine if focal stimulation of the dorsal columns with a transverse tripolar lead might achieve deeper penetration of the electrical stimulus into the spinal cord and therefore provide greater analgesia to the back. DESIGN: Case report. METHODS: We describe a 42-year-old female with failed back surgery syndrome that had greater back pain than leg pain. The tripolar lead configuration was achieved by placing percutaneously an octapolar lead in the spinal midline followed by 2 adjacent quadripolar leads, advanced to the T7-T10 vertebral bodies. RESULTS: Tripolar stimulation pattern resulted in more than 70% pain relief in this patient during the screening trial, while stimulation of one or 2 electrodes only provided 20% pain relief. After implantation of a permanent tripolar electrode system with a single rechargeable battery, the pain relief was maintained for one year. CONCLUSION: This is case report describing a case of a patient with chronic low back pain with a diagnosis of failed back surgery syndrome in which transverse tripolar stimulation using an octapolar and 2 quadripolar leads appeared to be beneficial. The transverse tripolar system consists of a central cathode surrounded by anodes, using 3 leads. This arrangement may contribute to maximum dorsal column stimulation with minimal dorsal root stimulation and provide analgesia to the lower back.

Consensus Guidelines on the Use of Intravenous Ketamine Infusions for Chronic Pain From the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, the American Academy of Pain Medicine, and the American Society of Anesthesiologists.

BACKGROUND: Over the past 2 decades, the use of intravenous ketamine infusions as a treatment for chronic pain has increased dramatically, with wide variation in patient selection, dosing, and monitoring. This has led to a chorus of calls from various sources for the development of consensus guidelines. METHODS: In November 2016, the charge for developing consensus guidelines was approved by the boards of directors of the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine and, shortly thereafter, the American Academy of Pain Medicine. In late 2017, the completed document was sent to the American Society of Anesthesiologists' Committees on Pain Medicine and Standards and Practice Parameters, after which additional modifications were made. Panel members were selected by the committee chair and both boards of directors based on their expertise in evaluating clinical trials, past research experience, and clinical experience in developing protocols and treating patients with ketamine. Questions were developed and refined by the committee, and the groups responsible for addressing each question consisted of modules composed of 3 to 5 panel members in addition to the committee chair. Once a preliminary consensus was achieved, sections were sent to the entire panel, and further revisions were made. In addition to consensus guidelines, a comprehensive narrative review was performed, which formed part of the basis for guidelines. RESULTS: Guidelines were prepared for the following areas: indications; contraindications; whether there was evidence for a dose-response relationship, or a minimum or therapeutic dose range; whether oral ketamine or another N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist was a reasonable treatment option as a follow-up to infusions; preinfusion testing requirements; settings and personnel necessary to administer and monitor treatment; the use of preemptive and rescue medications to address adverse effects; and what constitutes a positive treatment response. The group was able to reach consensus on all questions. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence supports the use of ketamine for chronic pain, but the level of evidence varies by condition and dose range. Most studies evaluating the efficacy of ketamine were small and uncontrolled and were either unblinded or ineffectively blinded. Adverse effects were few and the rate of serious adverse effects was similar to placebo in most studies, with higher dosages and more frequent infusions associated with greater risks. Larger studies, evaluating a wider variety of conditions, are needed to better quantify efficacy, improve patient selection, refine the therapeutic dose range, determine the effectiveness of nonintravenous ketamine alternatives, and develop a greater understanding of the long-term risks of repeated treatments.

The parturient with implanted spinal cord stimulator: management and review of the literature.

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is an approved treatment for complex regional pain syndrome and other chronic pain conditions. These devices enable women with chronic pain to maintain relatively normal lives, with some encountering pregnancy. Use of previously implanted SCS systems in pregnant women is considered controversial due to lack of long-term prospective studies evaluating both maternal and fetal safety. Seven patients at a university pain clinic were identified as having SCS implanted before becoming pregnant. Data on these patients before, during, and after labor were collected through chart review and patient interview. Onset of labor varied among the 7 patients (2 preterm and 5 term). Mode of anesthesia for delivery included 4 neuraxial anesthetics, with 3 successfully obtaining an adequate level of anesthesia for delivery. Four general anesthetics were administered for cesarean delivery, one of which included a failed attempt at neuraxial anesthesia. All infants were born healthy. Management approaches and outcomes in our patients, as well as those previously reported are discussed within this article. Definitive conclusions cannot be drawn from this small cohort. We believe that management of a parturient with an implanted SCS requires careful planning between all peripartum physicians.