Disrupted extracellular matrix and cell cycle genes in autism-associated Shank3 deficiency are targeted by lithium.

The Shank3 gene encodes the major postsynaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3. Its mutation causes a syndromic form of autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Phelan-McDermid Syndrome (PMDS). It is characterized by global developmental delay, intellectual disorders (ID), ASD behavior, affective symptoms, as well as extra-cerebral symptoms. Although Shank3 deficiency causes a variety of molecular alterations, they do not suffice to explain all clinical aspects of this heterogenic syndrome. Since global gene expression alterations in Shank3 deficiency remain inadequately studied, we explored the transcriptome in vitro in primary hippocampal cells from Shank3∆11(-/-) mice, under control and lithium (Li) treatment conditions, and confirmed the findings in vivo. The Shank3∆11(-/-) genotype affected the overall transcriptome. Remarkably, extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell cycle transcriptional programs were disrupted. Accordingly, in the hippocampi of adolescent Shank3∆11(-/-) mice we found proteins of the collagen family and core cell cycle proteins downregulated. In vitro Li treatment of Shank3∆11(-/-) cells had a rescue-like effect on the ECM and cell cycle gene sets. Reversed ECM gene sets were part of a network, regulated by common transcription factors (TF) such as cAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (CREB1) and ß-Catenin (CTNNB1), which are known downstream effectors of synaptic activity and targets of Li. These TFs were less abundant and/or hypo-phosphorylated in hippocampi of Shank3∆11(-/-) mice and could be rescued with Li in vitro and in vivo. Our investigations suggest the ECM compartment and cell cycle genes as new players in the pathophysiology of Shank3 deficiency, and imply involvement of transcriptional regulators, which can be modulated by Li. This work supports Li as potential drug in the management of PMDS symptoms, where a Phase III study is ongoing.

SHANK3 deficiency leads to myelin defects in the central and peripheral nervous system.

Mutations or deletions of the SHANK3 gene are causative for Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMDS), a syndromic form of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). We analyzed Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice and organoids from PMDS individuals to study effects on myelin. SHANK3 was found to be expressed in oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, and MRI analysis of Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice revealed a reduced volume of the corpus callosum as seen in PMDS patients. Myelin proteins including myelin basic protein showed significant temporal and regional differences with lower levels in the CNS but increased amounts in the PNS of Shank3Δ11(-/-) animals. Node, as well as paranode, lengths were increased and ultrastructural analysis revealed region-specific alterations of the myelin sheaths. In PMDS hiPSC-derived cerebral organoids we observed an altered number and delayed maturation of myelinating cells. These findings provide evidence that, in addition to a synaptic deregulation, impairment of myelin might profoundly contribute to the clinical manifestation of SHANK3 deficiency.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: molecular mechanisms and pathophysiological consequences.

Neurons are critically dependent on mitochondrial integrity based on specific morphological, biochemical, and physiological features. They are characterized by high rates of metabolic activity and need to respond promptly to activity-dependent fluctuations in bioenergetic demand. The dimensions and polarity of neurons require efficient transport of mitochondria to hot spots of energy consumption, such as presynaptic and postsynaptic sites. Moreover, the postmitotic state of neurons in combination with their exposure to intrinsic and extrinsic neuronal stress factors call for a high fidelity of mitochondrial quality control systems. Consequently, it is not surprising that mitochondrial alterations can promote neuronal dysfunction and degeneration. In particular, mitochondrial dysfunction has long been implicated in the etiopathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), based on the observation that mitochondrial toxins can cause parkinsonism in humans and animal models. Substantial progress towards understanding the role of mitochondria in the disease process has been made by the identification and characterization of genes causing familial variants of PD. Studies on the function and dysfunction of these genes revealed that various aspects of mitochondrial biology appear to be affected in PD, comprising mitochondrial biogenesis, bioenergetics, dynamics, transport, and quality control.

Cellular Zinc Homeostasis Contributes to Neuronal Differentiation in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells.

Disturbances in neuronal differentiation and function are an underlying factor of many brain disorders. Zinc homeostasis and signaling are important mediators for a normal brain development and function, given that zinc deficiency was shown to result in cognitive and emotional deficits in animal models that might be associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. One underlying mechanism of the observed detrimental effects of zinc deficiency on the brain might be impaired proliferation and differentiation of stem cells participating in neurogenesis. Thus, to examine the molecular mechanisms regulating zinc metabolism and signaling in differentiating neurons, using a protocol for motor neuron differentiation, we characterized the expression of zinc homeostasis genes during neurogenesis using human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and evaluated the influence of altered zinc levels on the expression of zinc homeostasis genes, cell survival, cell fate, and neuronal function. Our results show that zinc transporters are highly regulated genes during neuronal differentiation and that low zinc levels are associated with decreased cell survival, altered neuronal differentiation, and, in particular, synaptic function. We conclude that zinc deficiency in a critical time window during brain development might influence brain function by modulating neuronal differentiation.

Inhibition of mitochondrial fusion by α-synuclein is rescued by PINK1, Parkin and DJ-1.

Aggregation of α-synuclein (αS) is involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) and a variety of related neurodegenerative disorders. The physiological function of αS is largely unknown. We demonstrate with in vitro vesicle fusion experiments that αS has an inhibitory function on membrane fusion. Upon increased expression in cultured cells and in Caenorhabditis elegans, αS binds to mitochondria and leads to mitochondrial fragmentation. In C. elegans age-dependent fragmentation of mitochondria is enhanced and shifted to an earlier time point upon expression of exogenous αS. In contrast, siRNA-mediated downregulation of αS results in elongated mitochondria in cell culture. αS can act independently of mitochondrial fusion and fission proteins in shifting the dynamic morphologic equilibrium of mitochondria towards reduced fusion. Upon cellular fusion, αS prevents fusion of differently labelled mitochondrial populations. Thus, αS inhibits fusion due to its unique membrane interaction. Finally, mitochondrial fragmentation induced by expression of αS is rescued by coexpression of PINK1, parkin or DJ-1 but not the PD-associated mutations PINK1 G309D and parkin Δ1-79 or by DJ-1 C106A.

Shank3 related muscular hypotonia is accompanied by increased intracellular calcium concentrations and ion channel dysregulation in striated muscle tissue.

Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) is a syndromic form of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) classified as a rare genetic neurodevelopmental disorder featuring global developmental delay, absent or delayed speech, ASD-like behaviour and neonatal skeletal muscle hypotonia. PMS is caused by a heterozygous deletion of the distal end of chromosome 22q13.3 or SHANK3 mutations. We analyzed striated muscles of newborn Shank3Δ11(-/-) animals and found a significant enlargement of the sarcoplasmic reticulum as previously seen in adult Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice, indicative of a Shank3-dependent and not compensatory mechanism for this structural alteration. We analyzed transcriptional differences by RNA-sequencing of muscle tissue of neonatal Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice and compared those to Shank3(+/+) controls. We found significant differences in gene expression of ion channels crucial for muscle contraction and for molecules involved in calcium ion regulation. In addition, calcium storage- [i.e., Calsequestrin (CSQ)], calcium secretion- and calcium-related signaling-proteins were found to be affected. By immunostainings and Western blot analyses we could confirm these findings both in Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice and PMS patient muscle tissue. Moreover, alterations could be induced in vitro by the selective downregulation of Shank3 in C2C12 myotubes. Our results emphasize that SHANK3 levels directly or indirectly regulate calcium homeostasis in a cell autonomous manner that might contribute to muscular hypotonia especially seen in the newborn.

Immune activation during pregnancy exacerbates ASD-related alterations in Shank3-deficient mice.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is mainly characterized by deficits in social interaction and communication and repetitive behaviors. Known causes of ASD are mutations of certain risk genes like the postsynaptic protein SHANK3 and environmental factors including prenatal infections. METHODS: To analyze the gene-environment interplay in ASD, we combined the Shank3Δ11-/- ASD mouse model with maternal immune activation (MIA) via an intraperitoneal injection of polyinosinic/polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C) on gestational day 12.5. The offspring of the injected dams was further analyzed for autistic-like behaviors and comorbidities followed by biochemical experiments with a focus on synaptic analysis. RESULTS: We show that the two-hit mice exhibit excessive grooming and deficits in social behavior more prominently than the Shank3Δ11-/- mice. Interestingly, these behavioral changes were accompanied by an unexpected upregulation of postsynaptic density (PSD) proteins at excitatory synapses in striatum, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. LIMITATIONS: We found several PSD proteins to be increased in the two-hit mice; however, we can only speculate about possible pathways behind the worsening of the autistic phenotype in those mice. CONCLUSIONS: With this study, we demonstrate that there is an interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors defining the severity of ASD symptoms. Moreover, we show that a general misbalance of PSD proteins at excitatory synapses is linked to ASD symptoms, making this two-hit model a promising tool for the investigation of the complex pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Trans-cardiac perfusion of neonatal mice and immunofluorescence of the whole body as a method to study nervous system development.

Whole animal perfusion is a well-established method that has been used for the past decades in multiple research fields. Particularly, it has been very important for the study of the brain. The rapid and uniform fixation of tissue is essential for the preservation of its integrity and the study of complex structures. For small tissue pieces submerging in formaldehyde solution oftentimes is sufficient to get a good fixation, larger tissues or organs with a more complicated structure present a greater difficulty. Here, we report the precise parameters to successfully perform trans-cardiac perfusion of neonatal mouse pups that allows a uniform fixation of the whole body for subsequent structural analysis and immunohistochemistry. In comparison to standard perfusion procedures of adult mice, changes in the pump velocity, the buffer volume and in the needle size lead to high quality fixation of neonatal mice pups. Further, we present a whole-body section staining, which results in a highly specific immunofluorescence signal suited for detailed analysis of multiple tissues or systems at the same time. Thus, our protocol provides a reproducible and reliable method for neonatal perfusion and staining that can rapidly be applied in any laboratory. It allows a high quality analysis of cellular structures and expression profiles at early developmental stages.

SHANK3 Antibody Validation: Differential Performance in Western Blotting, Immunocyto- and Immunohistochemistry.

SHANK3 is a scaffolding protein implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Its function at excitatory glutamatergic synapses has been studied for the last two decades, however, tissue-specific expression patterns as well as its subcellular localization need to be studied in further detail. Especially the close sequence homology of SHANK3 to its protein family members SHANK2 and SHANK1 raises the emerging need for specific antibodies that are validated for the desired methodology. With this study, we aim to validate a set of commercial as well as homemade SHANK3 antibodies in Western Blotting, and synaptic immunocyto- and immunohistochemistry. We found that only a small subset of the antibodies included in this study meet the criteria of quality and specificity. Therefore, we aim to share our findings on SHANK3 antibody validation but also raise awareness of the necessity of antibody specificity testing in the field.

SHANK2 Mutations Result in Dysregulation of the ERK1/2 Pathway in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells-Derived Neurons and Shank2(-/-) Mice.

SHANK2 (ProSAP1) is a postsynaptic scaffolding protein of excitatory synapses in the central nervous system and implicated in the development of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Patients with mutations in SHANK2 show autism-like behaviors, developmental delay, and intellectual disability. We generated human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) from a patient carrying a heterozygous deletion of SHANK2 and from the unaffected parents. In patient hiPSCs and derived neurons SHANK2 mRNA and protein expression was reduced. During neuronal maturation, a reduction in growth cone size and a transient increase in neuronal soma size were observed. Neuronal proliferation was increased, and apoptosis was decreased in young and mature neurons. Additionally, mature patient hiPSC-derived neurons showed dysregulated excitatory signaling and a decrease of a broad range of signaling molecules of the ERK-MAP kinase pathway. These findings could be confirmed in brain samples from Shank2(-/-) mice, which also showed decreased mGluR5 and phospho-ERK1/2 expression. Our study broadens the current knowledge of SHANK2-related ASD. We highlight the importance of excitatory-inhibitory balance and mGluR5 dysregulation with disturbed downstream ERK1/2 signaling in ASD, which provides possible future therapeutic strategies for SHANK2-related ASD.

Autism-associated SHANK3 mutations impair maturation of neuromuscular junctions and striated muscles.

Heterozygous mutations of the gene encoding the postsynaptic protein SHANK3 are associated with syndromic forms of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). One of the earliest clinical symptoms in SHANK3-associated ASD is neonatal skeletal muscle hypotonia. This symptom can be critical for the early diagnosis of affected children; however, the mechanism mediating hypotonia in ASD is not completely understood. Here, we used a combination of patient-derived human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice, and Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMDS) muscle biopsies from patients of different ages to analyze the role of SHANK3 on motor unit development. Our results suggest that the hypotonia in SHANK3 deficiency might be caused by dysfunctions in all elements of the voluntary motor system: motoneurons, neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), and striated muscles. We found that SHANK3 localizes in Z-discs in the skeletal muscle sarcomere and co-immunoprecipitates with α-ACTININ. SHANK3 deficiency lead to shortened Z-discs and severe impairment of acetylcholine receptor clustering in hiPSC-derived myotubes and in muscle from Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice and patients with PMDS, indicating a crucial role for SHANK3 in the maturation of NMJs and striated muscle. Functional motor defects in Shank3Δ11(-/-) mice could be rescued with the troponin activator Tirasemtiv that sensitizes muscle fibers to calcium. Our observations give insight into the function of SHANK3 besides the central nervous system and imply potential treatment strategies for SHANK3-associated ASD.

NEK1 loss-of-function mutation induces DNA damage accumulation in ALS patient-derived motoneurons.

Mutations in genes coding for proteins involved in DNA damage response (DDR) and repair, such as C9orf72 and FUS (Fused in Sarcoma), are associated with neurodegenerative diseases and lead to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in NEK1 (NIMA-related kinase 1) have also been recently found to cause ALS. NEK1 codes for a multifunctional protein, crucially involved in mitotic checkpoint control and DDR. To resolve pathological alterations associated with NEK1 mutation, we compared hiPSC-derived motoneurons carrying a NEK1 mutation with mutant C9orf72 and wild type neurons at basal level and after DNA damage induction. Motoneurons carrying a C9orf72 mutation exhibited cell specific signs of increased DNA damage. This phenotype was even more severe in NEK1c.2434A>T neurons that showed significantly increased DNA damage at basal level and impaired DDR after induction of DNA damage in an maturation-dependent manner. Our results provide first mechanistic insight in pathophysiological alterations induced by NEK1 mutations and point to a converging pathomechanism of different gene mutations causative for ALS. Therefore, our study contributes to the development of novel therapeutic strategies to reduce DNA damage accumulation in neurodegenerative diseases and ALS.

FUS Mislocalization and Vulnerability to DNA Damage in ALS Patients Derived hiPSCs and Aging Motoneurons.

Mutations within the FUS gene (Fused in Sarcoma) are known to cause Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disease affecting upper and lower motoneurons. The FUS gene codes for a multifunctional RNA/DNA-binding protein that is primarily localized in the nucleus and is involved in cellular processes such as splicing, translation, mRNA transport and DNA damage response. In this study, we analyzed pathophysiological alterations associated with ALS related FUS mutations (mFUS) in human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and hiPSC derived motoneurons. To that end, we compared cells carrying a mild or severe mFUS in physiological- and/or stress conditions as well as after induced DNA damage. Following hyperosmolar stress or irradiation, mFUS hiPS cells recruited significantly more cytoplasmatic FUS into stress granules accompanied by impaired DNA-damage repair. In motoneurons wild-type FUS was localized in the nucleus but also deposited as small punctae within neurites. In motoneurons expressing mFUS the protein was additionally detected in the cytoplasm and a significantly increased number of large, densely packed FUS positive stress granules were seen along neurites. The amount of FUS mislocalization correlated positively with both the onset of the human disease (the earlier the onset the higher the FUS mislocalization) and the maturation status of the motoneurons. Moreover, even in non-stressed post-mitotic mFUS motoneurons clear signs of DNA-damage could be detected. In summary, we found that the susceptibility to cell stress was higher in mFUS hiPSCs and hiPSC derived motoneurons than in controls and the degree of FUS mislocalization correlated well with the clinical severity of the underlying ALS related mFUS. The accumulation of DNA damage and the cellular response to DNA damage stressors was more pronounced in post-mitotic mFUS motoneurons than in dividing hiPSCs suggesting that mFUS motoneurons accumulate foci of DNA damage, which in turn might be directly linked to neurodegeneration.