First Evaluation of Infrared Thermography as a Tool for the Monitoring of Udder Health Status in Farms of Dairy Cows.

The aim of the present study was to test infrared thermography (IRT), under field conditions, as a possible tool for the evaluation of cow udder health status. Thermographic images (n. 310) from different farms (n. 3) were collected and evaluated using a dedicated software application to calculate automatically and in a standardized way, thermographic indices of each udder. Results obtained have confirmed a significant relationship between udder surface skin temperature (USST) and classes of somatic cell count in collected milk samples. Sensitivity and specificity in the classification of udder health were: 78.6% and 77.9%, respectively, considering a level of somatic cell count (SCC) of 200,000 cells/mL as a threshold to classify a subclinical mastitis or 71.4% and 71.6%, respectively when a threshold of 400,000 cells/mL was adopted. Even though the sensitivity and specificity were lower than in other published papers dealing with non-automated analysis of IRT images, they were considered acceptable as a first field application of this new and developing technology. Future research will permit further improvements in the use of IRT, at farm level. Such improvements could be attained through further image processing and enhancement, and the application of indicators developed and tested in the present study with the purpose of developing a monitoring system for the automatic and early detection of mastitis in individual animals on commercial farms.

Development of a Machine Vision Method for the Monitoring of Laying Hens and Detection of Multiple Nest Occupations.

Free range systems can improve the welfare of laying hens. However, the access to environmental resources can be partially limited by social interactions, feeding of hens, and productivity, can be not stable and damaging behaviors, or negative events, can be observed more frequently than in conventional housing systems. In order to reach a real improvement of the hens' welfare the study of their laying performances and behaviors is necessary. With this purpose, many systems have been developed. However, most of them do not detect a multiple occupation of the nest negatively affecting the accuracy of data collected. To overcome this issue, a new "nest-usage-sensor" was developed and tested. It was based on the evaluation of thermografic images, as acquired by a thermo-camera, and the performing of patter recognitions on images acquired from the nest interior. The sensor was setup with a "Multiple Nest Occupation Threshold" of 796 colored pixels and a template of triangular shape and sizes of 43 × 33 pixels (high per base). It was tested through an experimental nesting system where 10 hens were reared for a month. Results showed that the evaluation of thermografic images could increase the detection performance of a multiple occupation of the nest and to apply an image pattern recognition technique could allow for counting the number of hens in the nest in case of a multiple occupation. As a consequence, the accuracy of data collected in studies on laying performances and behaviors of hens, reared in a free-range housing system, could result to be improved.

A Monitoring System for Laying Hens That Uses a Detection Sensor Based on Infrared Technology and Image Pattern Recognition.

In Italy, organic egg production farms use free-range housing systems with a big outdoor area and a flock of no more than 500 hens. With additional devices and/or farming procedures, the whole flock could be forced to stay in the outdoor area for a limited time of the day. As a consequence, ozone treatments of housing areas could be performed in order to reduce the levels of atmospheric ammonia and bacterial load without risks, due by its toxicity, both for hens and workers. However, an automatic monitoring system, and a sensor able to detect the presence of animals, would be necessary. For this purpose, a first sensor was developed but some limits, related to the time necessary to detect a hen, were observed. In this study, significant improvements, for this sensor, are proposed. They were reached by an image pattern recognition technique that was applied to thermografic images acquired from the housing system. An experimental group of seven laying hens was selected for the tests, carried out for three weeks. The first week was used to set-up the sensor. Different templates, to use for the pattern recognition, were studied and different floor temperature shifts were investigated. At the end of these evaluations, a template of elliptical shape, and sizes of 135 × 63 pixels, was chosen. Furthermore, a temperature shift of one degree was selected to calculate, for each image, a color background threshold to apply in the following field tests. Obtained results showed an improvement of the sensor detection accuracy that reached values of sensitivity and specificity of 95.1% and 98.7%. In addition, the range of time necessary to detect a hen, or classify a case, was reduced at two seconds. This result could allow the sensor to control a bigger area of the housing system. Thus, the resulting monitoring system could allow to perform the sanitary treatments without risks both for animals and humans.

Tranquillizing Effect of Passiflora incarnata Extract: Outcome on Behavioral and Physiological Indicators in Weaning Pigs with Intact Tails.

Tail docking has been used in the pig industry to decrease the occurrence of tail biting behavior. This abnormal behavior has a multifactorial origin since it is a response to simultaneous environmental, nutritional and management changes. Given the calming properties of Passiflora incarnata, we hypothesized that dietary supplementation with the extract in weaned pigs could result in a modification of behavior and physiologic indicators linked to stress. Weaned piglets (n = 120, mean body weight 9.07 ± 2.30 kg) were randomly allocated to one of two dietary treatments: control diet (CON) and CON supplemented with 1 kg/t of P. incarnata (PAS). The trial was 28 days long. The presence of skin lesions was assessed at d-1, d-10, d-19, and d-28, and saliva samples were collected for IgA and cortisol determinations at the same sampling times. Results showed the PAS group was characterized by equal growth performance as the CON group, fewer ear lesions (p < 0.05), less aggressive behavior (p < 0.001), higher enrichment exploration (p < 0.001) and lower cortisol levels (p < 0.01). Time effect was observed for tail lesions (p < 0.001) and behavioral observations (p < 0.001). Additional research is required to determine the effect of P. incarnata extract using a larger number of animals and longer period of supplementation when risks associated with tail biting are uncontrolled.

Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation in combination with skin thermography in obesity: a window on sympathetic nervous system.

AIMS: Obesity is known to be associated with an altered thermoregulation as well as a dysregulation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Considering the ability of deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS) to modulate the SNS, we hypothesized a potential role of dTMS in affecting thermoregulation in obesity. Aims of the study were to monitor the effect of a single session of dTMS on body temperature in subjects with obesity, and to correlate the dTMS-induced changes in body temperature with activation of the SNS (epinephrine and norepinephrine release). METHODS: Twenty-nine subjects with obesity [5 M, 24 F; age 50 (IQR: 58, 38) yrs; BMI 36.1 (IQR: 33.9, 38.7) kg/m2] were randomized into 2 groups receiving a single session of high frequency stimulation (HF) or sham stimulation. Under neutral thermal conditions, infrared thermography was utilized to assess bilateral fingernail-beds and abdominal temperature. RESULTS: During a single session HF, the average temperature of both fingernail-beds decreased. Right-hand temperature difference was statistically greater in HF vs Sham: median = - 1.45 (IQR: - 2.0, - 1.0)  °C for HF, p = 0.009. While temperature variation in the fingernail-bed of left hand was not statistically significant in HF compared to Sham: median = - 1.26 (IQR: - 1.6, -0.5) °C, p = 0.064. Concurrently, when estimating the effect of norepinephrine variation on temperature change of fingernail-bed of left hand, a borderline significant positive association was estimated (beta = 1.09, p = 0.067) in HF. CONCLUSIONS: Deep TMS revealed to be effective in modulating temperature in subjects with obesity, partially reversing obesity-induced alterations in heat production and dissipation with a potential SNS-mediated mechanism.

Equine-Assisted Interventions (EAIs) for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): Behavioural and Physiological Indices of Stress in Domestic Horses (Equus caballus) during Riding Sessions.

Equine-assisted interventions (EAIs) are well-known complementary practices combining physical activity with emotional/cognitive stimulation. They are especially suited for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who need a high degree of physical and psychological enrichment. Even though EAIs have become a common practice, stress responses in horses interacting with individuals that can manifest inappropriate behaviours, such as ASD children, have not been thoroughly investigated. Our multicentre study aimed to investigate behavioural and physiological indices of stress in horses involved in EAI standardised sessions with children with ASD compared to typically developing (TD) children. A controlled within-subject design with repeated measurements involving 19 horses and 38 children was adopted. Stress-related behaviours, heart rate, heart rate variability, and eye temperature were recorded during the riding sessions. Moreover, blood samples were collected from horses before and after each session to monitor changes in blood adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, and catecholamines. Results indicate that, in general, stress responses in horses involved in EAIs did not differ as a function of the horse being ridden by children with ASD or TD. A lower sympathetic tone in horses involved in ASD sessions was found, while in the mounting and dismounting phases, horses displayed behavioural signs of stress, independently from children's behaviour. We conclude that professionals working in EAI should increase their awareness of animal welfare and refine riding practices, taking into account horse's needs.

Neuroinflammation, body temperature and behavioural changes in CD1 male mice undergoing acute restraint stress: An exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Animal models used to study pathologies requiring rehabilitation therapy, such as cardiovascular and neurologic disorders or oncologic disease, must be as refined and translationally relevant as possible. Sometimes, however, experimental procedures such as those involving restraint may generate undesired effects which may act as a source of bias. However, the extent to which potentially confounding effects derive from such routine procedures is currently unknown. Our study was therefore aimed at exploring possible undesirable effects of acute restraint stress, whereby animals were exposed to a brightly lit enclosed chamber (R&L) similar to those that are commonly used for substance injection. We hypothesised that this would induce a range of unwanted physiological alterations [such as neuroinflammatory response and changes in body weight and in brown adipose tissue (BAT)] and behavioural modification, and that these might be mitigated via the use of non-aversive handling methods: Tunnel Handling (NAH-T) and Mechanoceptive Handling (NAH-M)) as compared to standard Tail Handling (TH). METHODS: Two indicators of physiological alterations and three potentially stress sensitive behavioural parameters were assessed. Physiological alterations were recorded via body weight changes and assessing the temperature of Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT) using infra-red thermography (IRT), and at the end of the experiment we determined the concentration of cytokines CXCL12 and CCL2 in bone marrow (BM) and activated microglia in the brain. Nest complexity scoring, automated home-cage behaviour analysis (HCS) and Elevated Plus Maze testing (EPM) were used to detect any behavioural alterations. Recordings were made before and after a 15-minute period of R&L in groups of mice handled via TH, NAH-T or NAH-M. RESULTS: BAT temperature significantly decreased in all handling groups following R&L regardless of handling method. There was a difference, at the limit of significance (p = 0.06), in CXCL12 BM content among groups. CXCL12 content in BM of NAH-T animals was similar to that found in Sentinels, the less stressed group of animals. After R&L, mice undergoing NAH-T and NAH-M showed improved body-weight maintenance compared to those exposed to TH. Mice handled via NAH-M spent a significantly longer time on the open arms of the EPM. The HCS results showed that in all mice, regardless of handling method, R&L resulted in a significant reduction in walking and rearing, but not in total distance travelled. All mice also groomed more. No difference among the groups was found in Nest Score, in CCL2 BM content or in brain activated microglia. CONCLUSIONS: Stress induced by a common restraint procedure caused metabolic and behavioural changes that might increase the risk of unexpected bias. In particular, the significant decrease in BAT temperature could affect the important metabolic pathways controlled by this tissue. R&L lowered the normal frequency of walking and rearing, increased grooming and probably carried a risk of low-grade neuro-inflammation. Some of the observed alterations can be mitigated by Non-aversive handlings.

Reproductive parameters in some captive-bred cockatoo species (genus Cacatua and Eolophus).

BACKGROUND: Cockatoo reproduction in captivity supplies a powerful tool to limit the economic motivation to capture endangered species from the wild; nevertheless, scientific data about reproductive parameters in cockatoos are very rare. The aim of the present work was to investigate the reproductive performance of different species of the Cacatua genus reared in the same facility to evaluate adaptability to captive breeding and to identify the main problems in ex situ conservation of some cockatoo species. METHODS: Data of 28 eggs from 19 reproductive pairs from 9 cockatoo species were analysed. Statistical analysis was carried out by SAS NPAR1WAY procedure: species was considered source of variation. RESULTS: Species effect does not significantly influence reproductive variables; differences were recorded in eggs fertility and embryo liveability. Bird adaptive ability to captive breeding has been described through reproductive parameters. CONCLUSION: Our results show the importance and the maintenance of natural species-specific behaviours and habits, and they underline the relevance of data collection about reproductive performance in endangered species kept in captivity to improve breeding management in conservation programmes.

The Use of Infrared Thermography for the Monitoring of Udder Teat Stress Caused by Milking Machines.

The aim of this study was to test infrared thermography (IRT) as a possible tool for scoring teat color changes after cluster removal; thus, indirectly, to classify the short-term stress of teats caused by milking machines. Thermographic images (n = 137) from three farms were collected and evaluated to calculate the average and maximum skin surface temperatures (SSTs) at the base, center, and tip of each teat (Tavg,B, Tavg,C, Tavg,T, Tmax,B, Tmax,C, and Tmax,T). Obtained results confirmed a significant relationship between the indicators Tavg, Tmax and the levels of teat color change (level one: pink-colored teat; level two: red-colored teat; level three: blue or purple-colored teat). Nevertheless, when a teat was considered to be stressed because its scoring fell in level 3 of the color-change scale used, sensitivity and specificity in the classification of the teat status ranged respectively between 45.6% and 54.3%, and 54.4% and 59.2%, for the indicators Tavg; and 56.5% and 60.9%, and 59.7% and 61.8%, for the indicators Tmax. When a teat was considered stressed because its scoring fell between the levels 2 and 3 of the scale adopted, sensitivity and specificity were between 49.0% and 55.8%, and 58.3% and 61.8%, for the indicators Tavg; and 55.8% and 59.9%, and 60.6% and 61.4%, for the indicators Tmax. As a consequence, the low values of sensitivity and specificity do not seem to justify the development of an ad hoc infrared device for the monitoring of udder teat stress. Nonetheless, this technology can be a viable solution for a preliminary evaluation of the mechanical stress of teats if a milking system would be equipped with an infrared sensor already in place for other purposes (e.g., the monitoring of udder health status).

The Use of Infrared Thermography (IRT) as Stress Indicator in Horses Trained for Endurance: A Pilot Study.

The aim of this pilot study was to document the effects of endurance training at different intensities on heart rate (HR), blood count, serum cortisol, and maximal temperatures of different body locations, namely eye, crown, pastern pasterns, gluteus and longissimus dorsi muscle (mm), measured by infrared thermography technique (IRT) in horses trained for endurance. Possible associations among the studied parameters were also investigated. Our hypothesis was that temperature, measured by IRT after endurance training of different intensities would vary depending on the intensity and would be positively correlated with HR and serum cortisol. Eight horses were tested before and after training of different intensities (low, moderate, and high). The results partially supported our hypothesis; all the studied parameters increased after training (p < 0.05), eye temperature (ET) correlated positively with HR (p < 0.01), and crown temperature (CT) correlated positively with cortisol (p < 0.01). However, only HR and white blood cells increased with the intensity of the exercise (p = 0.0016 and p = 0.0142, respectively). Our findings suggest the evaluation of ET and CT may become a useful non-invasive tool to detect physiological stress during training and to evaluate how the horses cope with the training. Infrared thermography technique may also become a useful tool for the early identification of horses that are not fit to compete or to continue the competition. However, further studies should be conducted on a larger number of horses and during competitions to ascertain our preliminary findings.

A refinement approach in a mouse model of rehabilitation research. Analgesia strategy, reduction approach and infrared thermography in spinal cord injury.

The principles of Refinement, Replacement and Reduction (3R's) should be taken into account when animals must be used for scientific purpose. Here, a Reduction / Refinement approach was applied to the procedure of spinal cord injury (SCI), an animal model used in rehabilitation medicine research, in order to improve the quality of experiments, avoiding unnecessary suffering. The aims of this investigation were 1- to assess acute surgical pain in mice subjected to SCI, 2- to compare the efficacy of commonly used analgesia (three buprenorphine subcutaneous injection in 48 hours, 0,15 mg/kg each) with a combination of opioid and NSAID (one subcutaneous injection of 5 mg/kg carprofen before surgery followed by three buprenorphine subcutaneous injection in 48 hours, 0,15 mg/kg each) and 3- to test if Infrared Thermography (IRT) could be a potential new Refinement method to easily assess thermoregulation, an important metabolic parameter. Finally, we aimed to achieve these goals without recruiting animals on purpose, but using mice already scheduled for studies on SCI. By using behaviours analysis, we found that, despite being commonly used, buprenorphine does not completely relieve acute surgical pain, whereas the combination of buprenorphine and carprofen significantly decreases pain signs by 80%. IRT technology turned out to be a very useful Refinement tool being a non invasive methods to measure animal temperature, particularly useful when rectal probe cannot be used, as in the case of SCI. We could find that temperatures constantly and significantly increased until 7 days after surgery and then slowly decreased and, finally, we could observe that in the buprenorphine and carprofen treated group, temperatures were statistically lower than in the buprenorphine-alone treated mice. To our knowledge this is the first work providing an analgesic Refinement and a description of thermoregulatory response using the IRT technology, in mice subjected to SCI.

The Bodies in Charge of Animal Welfare: What They Do and What They Could Do?

The coming into force of the 2010/63/EU (Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010) Standard, regarding the protection of animals used for scientific purposes, has made it mandatory for all establishments breeding, supplying, and using said animals to have an Animal Welfare Body (AWB). The establishment of a body such as the AWB represents a strong innovation compared to previous regulations (Dir. 86/609/CEE). Building from the key concept of the 3 Rs, European Community legislators acknowledged that the effective safeguard of animal welfare depends in large part on the professional skills of personnel in charge of their care and use. The European Community legislators therefore identify a body inside the institution that houses the animals and entrust it with the task to stimulate and support the practical implementation of the 3 Rs, by informing on technical and scientific developments on the application of said principle and the subsequent training and follow-up training of personnel. The functions assigned by the Standard to the AWB therefore focus on technical-scientific support: to supply advice to personnel in charge of animals concerning their welfare, matters relating to their acquisition, housing, care, and use, and to their integration/adoption (rehoming) at the end of their use. This approach is also emphasized by vesting the AWB with the responsibility to define and review internal monitoring and communication procedures pertaining to the welfare of the animals housed in the establishment, and to follow their development and the outcome of research projects concerning the effects produced on the animals used, supplying advice on activities that could result in possible improvements. Aware of the complexity and sensitivity of the role assigned to the AWB, and of the difficulty to put into practice the directions subject matter of the Standard, The European Commission, in the years following the issue of the Directive, appointed groups of experts with the task to formulate guidelines which would be beneficial both to the establishments and to control authorities of the various Member States and guarantee the implementation of effective and to control authorities of the various Member States and guarantee the implementation of effective and harmonized solutions. (National Competent Authorities for the implementation of Directive 2010/63/EU, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/lab_animals/pubs_guidance_en.htm).

Relationship between Deck Level, Body Surface Temperature and Carcass Damages in Italian Heavy Pigs after Short Journeys at Different Unloading Environmental Conditions.

In order to evaluate the relationships between deck level, body surface temperature and carcass damages after a short journey (30 min), 10 deliveries of Italian heavy pigs, including a total of 1400 animals from one farm, were examined. Within 5 min after the arrival at the abattoir, the vehicles were unloaded. Environmental temperature and relative humidity were recorded and a Temperature Humidity Index (THI) was calculated. After unloading, maximum temperatures of dorsal and ocular regions were measured by a thermal camera on groups of pigs from each of the unloaded decks. After dehairing, quarters and whole carcasses were evaluated subjectively by a trained operator for skin damage using a four-point scale. On the basis of THI at unloading, deliveries were grouped into three classes. Data of body surface temperature and skin damage score were analysed in a model including THI class, deck level and their interaction. Regardless of pig location in the truck, the maximum temperature of the dorsal and ocular regions increased with increasing THI class. Within each THI class, the highest and lowest body surface temperatures were found in pigs located on the middle and upper decks, respectively. Only THI class was found to affect the skin damage score (p < 0.05), which increased on quarters and whole carcasses with increasing THI class. The results of this study on short-distance transport of Italian heavy pigs highlighted the need to control and ameliorate the environmental conditions in the trucks, even at relatively low temperature and THI, in order to improve welfare and reduce loss of carcass value.

Equine Assisted Interventions (EAIs): Methodological Considerations for Stress Assessment in Horses.

Equine assisted interventions (EAIs) are recently facing an increasing popularity, and are characterized by a wide diversity of practices. However, information on the welfare of animals involved in this kind of activity is often lacking. Horses are highly susceptible to work stressors related to physical constraints and/or to the need to control emotions while interacting with humans. Considerations of the emotional state of horses involved in EAIs have multiple valences: for the safety of humans and animals involved, for the quality and efficacy of interventions, as well as for ethical reasons. The aim of this unsystematic narrative review is to summarize the different approaches used for the evaluation of horses' stress responses, investigate their application in the context of EAIs, and discuss some methodological considerations for researchers and practitioners involved in EAI. The sources of information are mostly based on electronic databases (i.e., Medline, Scopus and Google scholar), as well as on hand searches of the references of retrieved literature, and discussions with experts in the field. At present, a few studies have investigated horses' stress responses during EAIs, and further studies are recommended, with the final aim to derive a reliable multidimensional method for assessing a horse's reaction during therapeutic programs, ultimately helping professionals to better develop interventions by taking into consideration the animal's perspective.

Effect of Transport Distance and Season on Some Defects of Fresh Hams Destined for DPO Production.

Pre-slaughter handling is related to defects in fresh hams that result in exclusion from the DPO Parma chain, including hematomas, lacerations, microhaemorrhages and veining. To determine the effects of transport conditions on hams, we collected data on defects in 901,990 trimmed fresh hams from heavy pigs provided by 3,650 batches from slaughterhouse during 2012 and 2013. For all batches, transport distance (1-276 km) season and year of delivery were considered. A decrease of all defect occurrences was observed for increasing distance up to 170 km (P < 0.05). Above 170 km, however, all defects frequencies increased (P < 0.05). Season showed an effect on the incidence of defects, with an increasing of hematomas and lacerations in winter and autumn respectively (P < 0.05) and the highest percentage of veining and hemorrhages in spring (P < 0.05). Summer had the lowest incidence of defects on fresh hams. We concluded that the incidence of the examined defects and the subsequent rejection for DPO Parma ham production is lower in fresh hams transported 38-170 km during the summer.

Use of thermographic imaging in clinical diagnosis of small animal: preliminary notes.

INTRODUCTION: The authors, after a description of the physics of infrared thermographic technique (IRT), analyze the reading of images and the main applications in the veterinary field, compared to the existing literature on the subject and to their experimental researches. IRT lends itself to countless applications in biology, thanks to its characteristics of versatility, lack of invasiveness and high sensitivity. Probably the major limitation to its application in the animal lies in the ease of use and in its extreme sensitivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From September 2009 to October 2010, the experimental investigation with the thermo camera took into consideration 110 animals (92 dogs and 18 cats), without any selection criteria. All patients were brought to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Milan University by the owner, to be examined by a specialist, or to undergo one of the following diagnostic procedures: X-rays, computed tomography, or ultrasound examinations; finally some patients were brought in for surgical procedures. With the consent of the owner, 1 to 10 thermographic images were recorded from each clinical case. RESULTS: In this first experimental investigation, thermography has shown a high sensitivity (100%), but a low specificity (44%). This figure excludes the use of thermal imaging technology to replace other imaging techniques such as radiography, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Furthermore, it does not show any ability to recognize the etiology of the disease, but only the thermal alteration, and this is restricting its use. However, this experimental study has demonstrated that thermography can be used in veterinary medicine, and specifically in dogs and cats. It is hoped that in the field of targeted diseases this technique will become an important tool for diagnostic purposes by using working protocols validated and repeatable.

Potential application of thermography (IRT) in animal production and for animal welfare. A case report of working dogs.

INTRODUCTION: The authors describe the thermography technique in animal production and in veterinary medicine applications. The thermographic technique lends itself to countless applications in biology, thanks to its characteristics of versatility, lack of invasiveness and high sensitivity. Probably the major limitation to most important aspects for its application in the animal lies in the ease of use and in its extreme sensitivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This review provides an overview of the possible applications of the technique of thermo visual inspection, but it is clear that every phenomenon connected to temperature variations can be identified with this technique. Then the operator has to identify the best experimental context to obtain as much information as possible, concerning the physiopathological problems considered. Furthermore, we reported an experimental study about the thermography (IRT) as a noninvasive technique to assess the state of wellbeing in working dogs. RESULTS: The first results showed the relationship between superficial temperatures and scores obtained by the animal during the behavioral test. This result suggests an interesting application of infrared thermography (IRT) to measure the state of wellbeing of animals in a noninvasive way.

Effects of husbandry and management systems on physiology and behaviour of farmed and laboratory rabbits.

The major issues regarding the welfare of both farmed and laboratory rabbits are reviewed, according to husbandry and management systems. The main stressors that can affect welfare and homeostatic responses in rabbits are also reviewed. An overview of the most widespread housing systems for both farmed and laboratory rabbits is presented. The main problems related to housing and management are identified, in particular those related to individual and group housing, space requirements and group size, as well as human-animal interaction. The effects of psychological and physical stressors on physiology and behaviour are illustrated through examples in various rearing conditions. Psychological stressors include social stress and fear, while physical stressors include environmental variables such as housing system and climatic factors, i.e. heat. Welfare indicators are identified that can be monitored to determine the effects of individual and environmental variables on the animals' possible coping strategies. Physiological indicators include the neuro-endocrine and psycho-neuro-immuno-endocrine measurements, while behavioural indicators include the behavioural repertoire and responses to behavioural tests. Some possible ways to enhance welfare are indicated, such as enrichment of the environment and improved handling procedures.