Impact of Starch Binding Domain Fusion on Activities and Starch Product Structure of 4-α-Glucanotransferase.

A broad range of enzymes are used to modify starch for various applications. Here, a thermophilic 4-α-glucanotransferase from Thermoproteus uzoniensis (TuαGT) is engineered by N-terminal fusion of the starch binding domains (SBDs) of carbohydrate binding module family 20 (CBM20) to enhance its affinity for granular starch. The SBDs are N-terminal tandem domains (SBDSt1 and SBDSt2) from Solanum tuberosum disproportionating enzyme 2 (StDPE2) and the C-terminal domain (SBDGA) of glucoamylase from Aspergillus niger (AnGA). In silico analysis of CBM20s revealed that SBDGA and copies one and two of GH77 DPE2s belong to well separated clusters in the evolutionary tree; the second copies being more closely related to non-CAZyme CBM20s. The activity of SBD-TuαGT fusions increased 1.2-2.4-fold on amylose and decreased 3-9 fold on maltotriose compared with TuαGT. The fusions showed similar disproportionation activity on gelatinised normal maize starch (NMS). Notably, hydrolytic activity was 1.3-1.7-fold elevated for the fusions leading to a reduced molecule weight and higher α-1,6/α-1,4-linkage ratio of the modified starch. Notably, SBDGA-TuαGT and-SBDSt2-TuαGT showed Kd of 0.7 and 1.5 mg/mL for waxy maize starch (WMS) granules, whereas TuαGT and SBDSt1-TuαGT had 3-5-fold lower affinity. SBDSt2 contributed more than SBDSt1 to activity, substrate binding, and the stability of TuαGT fusions.

Interfacial Catalysis during Amylolytic Degradation of Starch Granules: Current Understanding and Kinetic Approaches.

Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch granules forms the fundamental basis of how nature degrades starch in plant cells, how starch is utilized as an energy resource in foods, and develops efficient, low-cost saccharification of starch, such as bioethanol and sweeteners. However, most investigations on starch hydrolysis have focused on its rates of degradation, either in its gelatinized or soluble state. These systems are inherently more well-defined, and kinetic parameters can be readily derived for different hydrolytic enzymes and starch molecular structures. Conversely, hydrolysis is notably slower for solid substrates, such as starch granules, and the kinetics are more complex. The main problems include that the surface of the substrate is multifaceted, its chemical and physical properties are ill-defined, and it also continuously changes as the hydrolysis proceeds. Hence, methods need to be developed for analyzing such heterogeneous catalytic systems. Most data on starch granule degradation are obtained on a long-term enzyme-action basis from which initial rates cannot be derived. In this review, we discuss these various aspects and future possibilities for developing experimental procedures to describe and understand interfacial enzyme hydrolysis of native starch granules more accurately.

Exploration of the Transglycosylation Activity of Barley Limit Dextrinase for Production of Novel Glycoconjugates.

A few α-glucan debranching enzymes (DBEs) of the large glycoside hydrolase family 13 (GH13), also known as the α-amylase family, have been shown to catalyze transglycosylation as well as hydrolysis. However, little is known about their acceptor and donor preferences. Here, a DBE from barley, limit dextrinase (HvLD), is used as a case study. Its transglycosylation activity is studied using two approaches; (i) natural substrates as donors and different p-nitrophenyl (pNP) sugars as well as different small glycosides as acceptors, and (ii) α-maltosyl and α-maltotriosyl fluorides as donors with linear maltooligosaccharides, cyclodextrins, and GH inhibitors as acceptors. HvLD showed a clear preference for pNP maltoside both as acceptor/donor and acceptor with the natural substrate pullulan or a pullulan fragment as donor. Maltose was the best acceptor with α-maltosyl fluoride as donor. The findings highlight the importance of the subsite +2 of HvLD for activity and selectivity when maltooligosaccharides function as acceptors. However, remarkably, HvLD is not very selective when it comes to aglycone moiety; different aromatic ring-containing molecules besides pNP could function as acceptors. The transglycosylation activity of HvLD can provide glycoconjugate compounds with novel glycosylation patterns from natural donors such as pullulan, although the reaction would benefit from optimization.

Functional diversity of three tandem C-terminal carbohydrate-binding modules of a ß-mannanase.

Carbohydrate active enzymes, such as those involved in plant cell wall and storage polysaccharide biosynthesis and deconstruction, often contain repeating noncatalytic carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) to compensate for low-affinity binding typical of protein-carbohydrate interactions. The bacterium Saccharophagus degradans produces an endo-ß-mannanase of glycoside hydrolase family 5 subfamily 8 with three phylogenetically distinct family 10 CBMs located C-terminally from the catalytic domain (SdGH5_8-CBM10x3). However, the functional roles and cooperativity of these CBM domains in polysaccharide binding are not clear. To learn more, we studied the full-length enzyme, three stepwise CBM family 10 (CBM10) truncations, and GFP fusions of the individual CBM10s and all three domains together by pull-down assays, affinity gel electrophoresis, and activity assays. Only the C-terminal CBM10-3 was found to bind strongly to microcrystalline cellulose (dissociation constant, Kd = 1.48 µM). CBM10-3 and CBM10-2 bound galactomannan with similar affinity (Kd = 0.2-0.4 mg/ml), but CBM10-1 had 20-fold lower affinity for this substrate. CBM10 truncations barely affected specific activity on carob galactomannan and konjac glucomannan. Full-length SdGH5_8-CBM10x3 was twofold more active on the highly galactose-decorated viscous guar gum galactomannan and crystalline ivory nut mannan at high enzyme concentrations, but the specific activity was fourfold to ninefold reduced at low enzyme and substrate concentrations compared with the enzyme lacking CBM10-2 and CBM10-3. Comparison of activity and binding data for the different enzyme forms indicates unproductive and productive polysaccharide binding to occur. We conclude that the C-terminal-most CBM10-3 secures firm binding, with contribution from CBM10-2, which with CBM10-1 also provides spatial flexibility.

Impact of Modular Architecture on Activity of Glycoside Hydrolase Family 5 Subfamily 8 Mannanases.

Glycoside hydrolase family 5 subfamily 8 (GH5_8) mannanases belong to Firmicutes, Actinomycetia, and Proteobacteria. The presence or absence of carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) present a striking difference. While various GH5_8 mannanases need a CBM for binding galactomannans, removal of the CBM did not affect activity of some, whereas it in other cases reduced the catalytic efficiency due to increased KM. Here, monomodular GH5_8 mannanases from Eubacterium siraeum (EsGH5_8) and Xanthomonas citri pv. aurantifolii (XcGH5_8) were produced and characterized to clarify if GH5_8 mannanases from Firmicutes and Proteobacteria without CBM(s) possess distinct properties. EsGH5_8 showed a remarkably high temperature optimum of 55 °C, while XcGH5_8 had an optimum at 30 °C. Both enzymes were highly active on carob galactomannan and konjac glucomannan. Notably, EsGH5_8 was equally active on both substrates, whereas XcGH5_8 preferred galactomannan. The KM values were comparable with those of catalytic domains of truncated GH5_8s, while the turn-over numbers (kcat) were in the higher end. Notably, XcGH5_8 bound to but did not degrade insoluble ivory nut mannan. The findings support the hypothesis that GH5_8 mannanases with CBMs target insoluble mannans found in plant cell walls and seeds, while monomodular GH5_8 members have soluble mannans and mannooligosaccharides as primary substrates.

Structure and function of α-glucan debranching enzymes.

α-Glucan debranching enzymes hydrolyse α-1,6-linkages in starch/glycogen, thereby, playing a central role in energy metabolism in all living organisms. They belong to glycoside hydrolase families GH13 and GH57 and several of these enzymes are industrially important. Nine GH13 subfamilies include α-glucan debranching enzymes; isoamylase and glycogen debranching enzymes (GH13_11); pullulanase type I/limit dextrinase (GH13_12-14); pullulan hydrolase (GH13_20); bifunctional glycogen debranching enzyme (GH13_25); oligo-1 and glucan-1,6-α-glucosidases (GH13_31); pullulanase type II (GH13_39); and α-amylase domains (GH13_41) in two-domain amylase-pullulanases. GH57 harbours type II pullulanases. Specificity differences, domain organisation, carbohydrate binding modules, sequence motifs, three-dimensional structures and specificity determinants are discussed. The phylogenetic analysis indicated that GH13_39 enzymes could represent a "missing link" between the strictly α-1,6-specific debranching enzymes and the enzymes with dual specificity and α-1,4-linkage preference.

Comparative biochemistry of PET hydrolase-carbohydrate-binding module fusion enzymes on a variety of PET substrates.

Enzyme-driven recycling of PET has now become a fully developed industrial process. With the right pre-treatment, PET can be completely depolymerized within workable timeframes. This has been realized due to extensive research conducted over the past decade, resulting in a large set of engineered PET hydrolases. Among various engineering strategies to enhance PET hydrolases, fusion with binding domains has been used to tune affinity and boost activity of the enzymes. While fusion enzymes have demonstrated higher activity in many cases, these results are primarily observed under conditions that would not be economically viable at scale. Furthermore, the wide variation in PET substrates, conditions, and combinations of PET hydrolases and binding domains complicates direct comparisons. Here, we present a self-consistent and thorough analysis of two leading PET hydrolases, LCCICCG and PHL7. Both enzymes were evaluated both without and with a substrate-binding domain across a range of industrially relevant PET substrates. We demonstrate that the presence of a substrate-binding module does not significantly affect the affinity of LCCICCG and PHL7 for PET. However, significant differences exist in how the fusion enzymes act on different PET substrates and solid substrate loading, ranging from a 3-fold increase in activity to a 6-fold decrease. These findings could inform the tailoring of enzyme choice to different industrial scenarios.

Protein-plastic interactions: The driving forces behind the high affinity of a carbohydrate-binding module for polyethylene terephthalate.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste is a common pollutant in the environment, mainly due to resistance of the plastic to bio-degradation. Nevertheless, hydrolytic enzymes have been identified with activity on this substrate, which are continually being engineered to increase activity. Some insoluble biological polymers are degraded by enzymes with a multi-domain architecture, comprising of a catalytic domain, and a substrate-binding domain, such as a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM). Enzymes that degrade PET have been shown to have a higher activity when fused with these CBMs, indicating a promising route for engineering better enzymes for plastic bioprocessing. However, no detailed study of the affinity and binding mechanism of these domains on PET has yet been made. Here, we perform an in depth analysis of a binding domain from CBM family 2 on PET, showing that the affinity of the protein for the plastic is highly dependent on temperature and crystallinity of the plastic. We also investigate the mechanism of the interaction, and show how affinity may be engineered in both directions. CBM affinity for other synthetic polymers is also demonstrated for the first time. Our results demonstrate that the substrate affinity of fusion enzymes with binding modules can be tuned to the desired level.

Functional Roles of N-Terminal Domains in Pullulanase from Human Gut Lactobacillus acidophilus.

Pullulanases are multidomain α-glucan debranching enzymes with one or more N-terminal domains (NTDs) including carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) and domains of unknown function (DUFs). To elucidate the roles of NTDs in Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM pullulanase (LaPul), two truncated variants, Δ41-LaPul (lacking CBM41) and Δ(41+DUFs)-LaPul (lacking CBM41 and two DUFs), were produced recombinantly. LaPul recognized 1.3- and 2.2-fold more enzyme attack-sites on starch granules compared to Δ41-LaPul and Δ(41+DUFs)-LaPul, respectively, as measured by interfacial kinetics. Δ41-LaPul displayed markedly lower affinity for starch granules and ß-cyclodextrin (10- and >21-fold, respectively) in comparison to LaPul, showing substrate binding mainly stems from CBM41. Δ(41+DUFs)-LaPul exhibited a 12 °C lower melting temperature than LaPul and Δ41-LaPul, indicating that the DUFs are critical for LaPul stability. Notably, Δ41-LaPul exhibited a 14-fold higher turnover number (kcat) and 9-fold higher Michaelis constant (KM) compared to LaPul, while Δ(41+DUFs)-LaPul's values were close to those of LaPul, possibly due to the exposure of aromatic by truncation.

Surface Plasmon Resonance Analysis for Quantifying Protein-Carbohydrate Interactions.

During the past two decades, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis has emerged as an important tool for studying protein-carbohydrate interactions, with several commercial instruments available. Binding affinities in the nM to mM range can be determined; however, there are pitfalls that require careful experimental design to avoid. Here we give an overview of each step in the SPR analysis from immobilization to data analysis, providing key points of consideration that will allow practitioners to achieve reliable and reproducible results.

Improved Hydrolysis of Granular Starches by a Psychrophilic α-Amylase Starch Binding Domain-Fusion.

Degradation of starch granules by a psychrophilic α-amylase, AHA, from the Antarctic bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAB23 was facilitated by C-terminal fusion to a starch-binding domain (SBD) from either Aspergillus niger glucoamylase (SBDGA) or Arabidopsis thaliana glucan, water dikinase 3 (SBDGWD3) via a decapeptide linker. Depending on the waxy, normal or high-amylose starch type and the botanical source, the AHA-SBD fusion enzymes showed up to 3 times higher activity than AHA wild-type. The SBD-fusion thus increased the density of enzyme attack-sites and binding-sites on the starch granules by up to 5- and 7-fold, respectively, as measured using an interfacial catalysis approach that combined conventional Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with the substrate in excess, and inverse kinetics, having enzyme in excess, with enzyme-starch granule adsorption isotherms. Higher substrate affinity of the SBDGA compared to SBDGWD3 was accompanied by the superior activity of AHA-SBDGA in agreement with the Sabatier principle of adsorption limited heterogenous catalysis.

Structural and functional characterization of a multi-domain GH92 α-1,2-mannosidase from Neobacillus novalis.

Many secreted eukaryotic proteins are N-glycosylated with oligosaccharides composed of a high-mannose N-glycan core and, in the specific case of yeast cell-wall proteins, an extended α-1,6-mannan backbone carrying a number of α-1,2- and α-1,3-mannose substituents of varying lengths. α-Mannosidases from CAZy family GH92 release terminal mannose residues from these N-glycans, providing access for the α-endomannanases, which then degrade the α-mannan backbone. Most characterized GH92 α-mannosidases consist of a single catalytic domain, while a few have extra domains including putative carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs). To date, neither the function nor the structure of a multi-domain GH92 α-mannosidase CBM has been characterized. Here, the biochemical investigation and crystal structure of the full-length five-domain GH92 α-1,2-mannosidase from Neobacillus novalis (NnGH92) with mannoimidazole bound in the active site and an additional mannoimidazole bound to the N-terminal CBM32 are reported. The structure of the catalytic domain is very similar to that reported for the GH92 α-mannosidase Bt3990 from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, with the substrate-binding site being highly conserved. The function of the CBM32s and other NnGH92 domains was investigated by their sequential deletion and suggested that whilst their binding to the catalytic domain was crucial for the overall structural integrity of the enzyme, they appear to have little impact on the binding affinity to the yeast α-mannan substrate. These new findings provide a better understanding of how to select and optimize other multi-domain bacterial GH92 α-mannosidases for the degradation of yeast α-mannan or mannose-rich glycans.

Structure of the starch-debranching enzyme barley limit dextrinase reveals homology of the N-terminal domain to CBM21.

Barley limit dextrinase (HvLD) is a debranching enzyme from glycoside hydrolase family 13 subfamily 13 (GH13_13) that hydrolyses α-1,6-glucosidic linkages in limit dextrins derived from amylopectin. The structure of HvLD was solved and refined to 1.9 Å resolution. The structure has a glycerol molecule in the active site and is virtually identical to the structures of HvLD in complex with the competitive inhibitors α-cyclodextrin and ß-cyclodextrin solved to 2.5 and 2.1 Å resolution, respectively. However, three loops in the N-terminal domain that are shown here to resemble carbohydrate-binding module family 21 were traceable and were included in the present HvLD structure but were too flexible to be traced and included in the structures of the two HvLD-inhibitor complexes.

Structure, Function and Protein Engineering of Cereal-Type Inhibitors Acting on Amylolytic Enzymes.

Numerous plants, including cereals, contain seed proteins able to inhibit amylolytic enzymes. Some of these inhibitors, the CM-proteins (soluble in chloroform:methanol mixtures)-also referred to as cereal-type inhibitors (CTIs)-are the topic of this review. CM-proteins were first reported 75 years ago. They are small sulfur-rich proteins of the prolamine superfamily embracing bifunctional α-amylase/trypsin inhibitors (ATIs), α-amylase inhibitors (AIs), limit dextrinase inhibitors (LDIs), and serine protease inhibitors. Phylogenetically CM-proteins are predicted across poaceae genomes and many isoforms are identified in seed proteomes. Their allergenicity and hence adverse effect on humans were recognized early on, as were their roles in plant defense. Generally, CTIs target exogenous digestive enzymes from insects and mammals. Notably, by contrast LDI regulates activity of the endogenous starch debranching enzyme, limit dextrinase, during cereal seed germination. CM-proteins are four-helix bundle proteins and form enzyme complexes adopting extraordinarily versatile binding modes involving the N-terminal and different loop regions. A number of these inhibitors have been characterized in detail and here focus will be on target enzyme specificity, molecular recognition, forces and mechanisms of binding as well as on three-dimensional structures of CM-protein-enzyme complexes. Lastly, prospects for CM-protein exploitation, rational engineering and biotechnological applications will be discussed.

In vitro discovery of a human monoclonal antibody that neutralizes lethality of cobra snake venom.

The monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) is among the most feared snakes in Southeast Asia due to its toxicity, which is predominantly derived from long-chain α-neurotoxins. The only specific treatment for snakebite envenoming is antivenom based on animal-derived polyclonal antibodies. Despite the lifesaving importance of these medicines, major limitations in safety, supply consistency, and efficacy create a need for improved treatments. Here, we describe the discovery and subsequent optimization of a recombinant human monoclonal immunoglobulin G antibody against α-cobratoxin using phage display technology. Affinity maturation by light chain-shuffling resulted in a significant increase in in vitro neutralization potency and in vivo efficacy. The optimized antibody prevented lethality when incubated with N. kaouthia whole venom prior to intravenous injection. This study is the first to demonstrate neutralization of whole snake venom by a single recombinant monoclonal antibody, thus providing a tantalizing prospect of bringing recombinant antivenoms based on human monoclonal or oligoclonal antibodies to the clinic.

Efficient secretory expression of functional barley limit dextrinase inhibitor by high cell-density fermentation of Pichia pastoris.

The limit dextrinase inhibitor (LDI) from barley seeds acts specifically on limit dextrinase (LD), an endogenous starch debranching enzyme. LDI is a 14 kDa hydrophobic protein containing four disulfide bonds and one unpaired thiol group previously found to be either glutathionylated or cysteinylated. It is a member of the so-called CM-protein family that includes α-amylase and serine protease inhibitors, which have been extremely challenging to produce recombinantly in functional form and in good yields. Here, LDI is produced in very high yields by secretory expression by Pichia pastoris applying high cell-density fermentation in a 5L fed-batch bioreactor. Thus about 200mg of LDI, which showed twofold higher inhibitory activity towards LD than LDI from barley seeds, was purified from 1L of culture supernatant by His-tag affinity chromatography and gel filtration. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry verified the identity of the produced glutathionylated LDI-His(6). At a 1:1M ratio the recombinant LDI completely inhibited hydrolysis of pullulan catalyzed by 5-10 nM LD. LDI retained stability in the pH 2-12 range and at pH 6.5 displayed a half-life of 53 and 33 min at 90 and 93°C, respectively. The efficient heterologous production of LDI suggests secretory expression by P. pastoris to be a promising strategy to obtain other recombinant CM-proteins.

An ultra-high affinity protein-protein interface displaying sequence-robustness.

Protein-protein interactions are crucial in biology and play roles in for example, the immune system, signaling pathways, and enzyme regulation. Ultra-high affinity interactions (Kd <0.1 nM) occur in these systems, however, structures and energetics behind stability of ultra-high affinity protein-protein complexes are not well understood. Regulation of the starch debranching barley limit dextrinase (LD) and its endogenous cereal type inhibitor (LDI) exemplifies an ultra-high affinity complex (Kd of 42 pM). In this study the LD-LDI complex is investigated to unveil how robust the ultra-high affinity is to LDI sequence variation at the protein-protein interface and whether alternative sequences can retain the ultra-high binding affinity. The interface of LD-LDI was engineered using computational protein redesign aiming at identifying LDI variants predicted to retain ultra-high binding affinity. These variants present a very diverse set of mutations going beyond conservative and alanine substitutions typically used to probe interfaces. Surface plasmon resonance analysis of the LDI variants revealed that high affinity of LD-LDI requires interactions of several residues at the rim of the protein interface, unlike the classical hotspot arrangement where key residues are found at the center of the interface. Notably, substitution of interface residues in LDI, including amino acids with functional groups different from the wild-type, could occur without loss of affinity. This demonstrates that ultra-high binding affinity can be conferred without hotspot residues, thus making complexes more robust to mutational drift in evolution. The present mutational analysis also demonstrates how energetic coupling can emerge between residues at large distances at the interface.

A putative novel starch-binding domain revealed by in silico analysis of the N-terminal domain in bacterial amylomaltases from the family GH77.

The family GH77 contains 4-α-glucanotransferase acting on α-1,4-glucans, known as amylomaltase in prokaryotes and disproportionating enzyme in plants. A group of bacterial GH77 members, represented by amylomaltases from Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum, possesses an N-terminal extension that forms a distinct immunoglobulin-like fold domain, of which no function has been identified. Here, in silico analysis of 100 selected sequences of N-terminal domain homologues disclosed several well-conserved residues, among which Tyr108 (E. coli amylomaltase numbering) may be involved in α-glucan binding. These N-terminal domains, therefore, may represent a new type of starch-binding domain and define a new CBM family. This hypothesis is supported by docking of maltooligosaccharides to the N-terminal domain in amylomaltases, representing the four clusters of the phylogenetic tree. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-02787-8.

Binding Sites for Oligosaccharide Repeats from Lactic Acid Bacteria Exopolysaccharides on Bovine ß-Lactoglobulin Identified by NMR Spectroscopy.

Lactic acid bacterial exopolysaccharides (EPS) are used in the food industry to improve the stability and rheological properties of fermented dairy products. ß-Lactoglobulin (BLG), the dominant whey protein in bovine milk, is well known to bind small molecules such as fatty acids, vitamins, and flavors, and to interact with neutral and anionic polysaccharides used in food and pharmaceuticals. While sparse data are available on the affinity of EPS-milk protein interactions, structural information on BLG-EPS complexes, including the EPS binding sites, is completely lacking. Here, binding sites on BLG variant A (BLGA), for oligosaccharides prepared by mild acid hydrolysis of two EPS produced by Streptococcus thermophilus LY03 and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus CNRZ 1187, respectively, are identified by NMR spectroscopy and supplemented by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and molecular docking of complexes. Evidence of two binding sites (site 1 and site 2) on the surface of BLGA is achieved for both oligosaccharides (LY03-OS and 1187-OS) through NMR chemical shift perturbations, revealing multivalency of BLGA for EPS. The affinities of LY03-OS and 1187-OS for BLGA gave K D values in the mM range obtained by both NMR (pH 2.65) and ITC (pH 4.0). Molecular docking suggested that the BLGA and EPS complexes depend on hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. The findings provide insights into how BLGA engages structurally different EPS-derived oligosaccharides, which may facilitate the design of BLG-EPS complexation, of relevance for formulation of dairy products and improve understanding of BLGA coacervation.

Wheat ATIs: Characteristics and Role in Human Disease.

Amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATIs) comprise about 2-4% of the total wheat grain proteins and may contribute to natural defense against pests and pathogens. However, they are currently among the most widely studied wheat components because of their proposed role in adverse reactions to wheat consumption in humans. ATIs have long been known to contribute to IgE-mediated allergy (notably Bakers' asthma), but interest has increased since 2012 when they were shown to be able to trigger the innate immune system, with attention focused on their role in coeliac disease which affects about 1% of the population and, more recently, in non-coeliac wheat sensitivity which may affect up to 10% of the population. This has led to studies of their structure, inhibitory properties, genetics, control of expression, behavior during processing, effects on human adverse reactions to wheat and, most recently, strategies to modify their expression in the plant using gene editing. We therefore present an integrated account of this range of research, identifying inconsistencies, and gaps in our knowledge and identifying future research needs. Note  This paper is the outcome of an invited international ATI expert meeting held in Amsterdam, February 3-5 2020.