Comparative Phenotyping of Mice Reveals Canonical and Noncanonical Physiological Functions of TRα and TRß.

Thyroid hormone (TH) effects are mediated through TH receptors (TRs), TRα1, TRß1, and TRß2. The TRs bind to the DNA and regulate expression of TH target genes (canonical signaling). In addition, they mediate activation of signaling pathways (noncanonical signaling). Whether noncanonical TR action contributes to the spectrum of TH effects is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to attribute physiological effects to the TR isoforms and their canonical and noncanonical signaling. We conducted multiparameter phenotyping in male and female TR knockout mice (TRαKO, TRßKO), mice with disrupted canonical signaling due to mutations in the TR DNA binding domain (TRαGS, TRßGS), and their wild-type littermates. Perturbations in senses, especially hearing (mainly TRß with a lesser impact of TRα), visual acuity, retinal thickness (TRα and TRß), and in muscle metabolism (TRα) highlighted the role of canonical TR action. Strikingly, selective abrogation of canonical TR action often had little phenotypic consequence, suggesting that noncanonical TR action sufficed to maintain the wild-type phenotype for specific effects. For instance, macrocytic anemia, reduced retinal vascularization, or increased anxiety-related behavior were only observed in TRαKO but not TRαGS mice. Noncanonical TRα action improved energy utilization and prevented hyperphagia observed in female TRαKO mice. In summary, by examining the phenotypes of TRα and TRß knockout models alongside their DNA binding-deficient mutants and wild-type counterparts, we could establish that the noncanonical actions of TRα and TRß play a crucial role in modulating sensory, behavioral, and metabolic functions and, thus, contribute to the spectrum of physiological TH effects.

Orphan GPR116 mediates the insulin sensitizing effects of the hepatokine FNDC4 in adipose tissue.

The proper functional interaction between different tissues represents a key component in systemic metabolic control. Indeed, disruption of endocrine inter-tissue communication is a hallmark of severe metabolic dysfunction in obesity and diabetes. Here, we show that the FNDC4-GPR116, liver-white adipose tissue endocrine axis controls glucose homeostasis. We found that the liver primarily controlled the circulating levels of soluble FNDC4 (sFNDC4) and lowering of the hepatokine FNDC4 led to prediabetes in mice. Further, we identified the orphan adhesion GPCR GPR116 as a receptor of sFNDC4 in the white adipose tissue. Upon direct and high affinity binding of sFNDC4 to GPR116, sFNDC4 promoted insulin signaling and insulin-mediated glucose uptake in white adipocytes. Indeed, supplementation with FcsFNDC4 in prediabetic mice improved glucose tolerance and inflammatory markers in a white-adipocyte selective and GPR116-dependent manner. Of note, the sFNDC4-GPR116, liver-adipose tissue axis was dampened in (pre) diabetic human patients. Thus our findings will now allow for harnessing this endocrine circuit for alternative therapeutic strategies in obesity-related pre-diabetes.

Lack of association of genetic variants in genes of the endocannabinoid system with anorexia nervosa.

BACKGROUND: Several lines of evidence indicate that the central cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) as well as the major endocannabinoid degrading enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (NAAA) and monoglyceride lipase (MGLL) are implicated in mediating the orexigenic effects of cannabinoids. The aim of this study was to analyse whether nucleotide sequence variations in the CNR1, FAAH, NAAA and MGLL genes are associated with anorexia nervosa (AN). METHODS: We analysed the association of a previously described (AAT)n repeat in the 3' flanking region of CNR1 as well as a total of 15 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) representative of regions with restricted haplotype diversity in CNR1, FAAH, NAAA or MGLL in up to 91 German AN trios (patient with AN and both biological parents) using the transmission-disequilibrium-test (TDT). One SNP was additionally analysed in an independent case-control study comprising 113 patients with AN and 178 normal weight controls. Genotyping was performed using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry, ARMS-PCR or using 3730xl capillary sequencers. RESULTS: The TDT revealed no evidence for association for any of the SNPs or the (AAT)n repeat with AN (all two-sided uncorrected p-values > 0.05). The lowest p-value of 0.11 was detected for the A-allele of the CNR1 SNP rs1049353 for which the transmission rate was 59% (95% confidence interval 47%...70%). Further genotyping of rs1049353 in 113 additional independent patients with AN and 178 normal weight controls could not substantiate the initial trend for association (p = 1.00). CONCLUSION: As we found no evidence for an association of genetic variation in CNR1, FAAH, NAAA and MGLL with AN, we conclude that genetic variations in these genes do not play a major role in the etiology of AN in our study groups.

No evidence for an involvement of variants in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) in obesity in German children and adolescents.

Studies in rodent models demonstrated that the central cannabinoid receptor (Cnr1) mediates the orexigenic effects of cannabinoids. To analyze whether genetic variation in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) is implicated in human obesity, we initially genotyped 8 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in the 5' region (rs9353527, rs754387, rs6454676), intron 2 (rs806379, rs1535255), exon 3 (rs2023239), intron 3 (rs806370) and the coding region (rs1049353) in up to 364 German obesity trios (extremely obese child or adolescent and both parents). The transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) was negative for these SNPs (p>0.05). However, there was a slight trend towards preferential transmission of the A-allele of rs1049353 (p=0.12). We therefore genotyped this SNP in 235 independent German obesity families (at least two obese sibs and both parents) and in parallel screened the CNR1 coding region for sequence variations in 120 German extremely obese children and adolescents who mainly contributed to the initial trend observed for rs1049353. The trend for preferential transmission of the A-allele could not be substantiated (pedigree disequilibrium test, PDT p=0.15; A-allele less frequently transmitted). In the mutation screen we detected two rare variations, one novel non-conservative mutation (c.1256C>A; A419E) and the known variant 1419+1G>C. In addition, we confirmed the presence of rs1049353. As these variants could not explain the initial TDT, we conclude that there is no evidence for an association of CNR1 alleles with obesity in our study groups.

Genome wide association (GWA) study for early onset extreme obesity supports the role of fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO) variants.

BACKGROUND: Obesity is a major health problem. Although heritability is substantial, genetic mechanisms predisposing to obesity are not very well understood. We have performed a genome wide association study (GWA) for early onset (extreme) obesity. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: a) GWA (Genome-Wide Human SNP Array 5.0 comprising 440,794 single nucleotide polymorphisms) for early onset extreme obesity based on 487 extremely obese young German individuals and 442 healthy lean German controls; b) confirmatory analyses on 644 independent families with at least one obese offspring and both parents. We aimed to identify and subsequently confirm the 15 SNPs (minor allele frequency > or =10%) with the lowest p-values of the GWA by four genetic models: additive, recessive, dominant and allelic. Six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in FTO (fat mass and obesity associated gene) within one linkage disequilibrium (LD) block including the GWA SNP rendering the lowest p-value (rs1121980; log-additive model: nominal p = 1.13 x 10(-7), corrected p = 0.0494; odds ratio (OR)(CT) 1.67, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.22-2.27; OR(TT) 2.76, 95% CI 1.88-4.03) belonged to the 15 SNPs showing the strongest evidence for association with obesity. For confirmation we genotyped 11 of these in the 644 independent families (of the six FTO SNPs we chose only two representing the LD bock). For both FTO SNPs the initial association was confirmed (both Bonferroni corrected p<0.01). However, none of the nine non-FTO SNPs revealed significant transmission disequilibrium. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our GWA for extreme early onset obesity substantiates that variation in FTO strongly contributes to early onset obesity. This is a further proof of concept for GWA to detect genes relevant for highly complex phenotypes. We concurrently show that nine additional SNPs with initially low p-values in the GWA were not confirmed in our family study, thus suggesting that of the best 15 SNPs in the GWA only the FTO SNPs represent true positive findings.