Early-life external exposome in children 2-5 years old in Colombia.

Exposome studies are advancing in high-income countries to understand how multiple environmental exposures impact health. However, there is a significant research gap in low- and middle-income and tropical countries. We aimed to describe the spatiotemporal variation of the external exposome, its correlation structure between and within exposure groups, and its dimensionality. A one-year follow-up cohort study of 506 children under 5 in two cities in Colombia was conducted to evaluate asthma, acute respiratory infections, and DNA damage. We examined 48 environmental exposures during pregnancy and 168 during childhood in eight exposure groups, including atmospheric pollutants, natural spaces, meteorology, built environment, traffic, indoor exposure, and socioeconomic capital. The exposome was estimated using geographic information systems, remote sensing, spatiotemporal modeling, and questionnaires. The median age of children at study entry was 3.7 years (interquartile range: 2.9-4.3). Air pollution and natural spaces exposure decreased from pregnancy to childhood, while socioeconomic capital increased. The highest median correlations within exposure groups were observed in meteorology (r = 0.85), traffic (r = 0.83), and atmospheric pollutants (r = 0.64). Important correlations between variables from different exposure groups were found, such as atmospheric pollutants and meteorology (r = 0.76), natural spaces (r = -0.34), and the built environment (r = 0.53). Twenty principal components explained 70%, and 57 explained 95% of the total variance in the childhood exposome. Our findings show that there is an important spatiotemporal variation in the exposome of children under 5. This is the first characterization of the external exposome in urban areas of Latin America and highlights its complexity, but also the need to better characterize and understand the exposome in order to optimize its analysis and applications in local interventions aimed at improving the health conditions and well-being of the child population and contributing to environmental health decision-making.

Implementation of an integrated care strategy for child contacts of tuberculosis patients: a quasi-experimental study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Childhood tuberculosis continues to be a major public health problem. Although the visibility of the epidemic in this population group has increased, further research is needed. OBJECTIVE: To design, implement and evaluate an integrated care strategy for children under five years old who are household contacts of bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Medellín and the Metropolitan Area. METHODS: A quasi-experimental study in which approximately 300 children who are household contacts of bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis patients from Medellín and the Metropolitan Area will be evaluated and recruited over one year. A subgroup of these children, estimated at 85, who require treatment for latent tuberculosis, will receive an integrated care strategy that includes: some modifications of the current standardized scheme in Colombia, with rifampicin treatment daily for four months, follow-up under the project scheme with nursing personnel, general practitioners, specialists, professionals from other disciplines such as social work, psychology, and nutritionist. Additionally, transportation and food assistance will be provided to encourage treatment compliance. This strategy will be compared with isoniazid treatment received by a cohort of children between 2015 and 2018 following the standardized scheme in the country. The study was approved by the CIB Research Ethics Committee and UPB. CLINICALTRIALS: gov identifier NCT04331262. DISCUSSION: This study is expected to contribute to the development of integrated care strategies for the treatment of latent tuberculosis in children. The results will have a direct impact on the management of childhood tuberculosis contributing to achieving the goals proposed by the World Health Organization's End TB Strategy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04331262 . Implementation of an Integrated Care Strategy for Children Contacts of Patients with Tuberculosis. Registered 2 April 2020.

Diffusion tensor imaging of the physis: the ABC's.

The physis, or growth plate, is the primary structure responsible for longitudinal growth of the long bones. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a technique that depicts the anisotropic motion of water molecules, or diffusion. When diffusion is limited by cellular membranes, information on tissue microstructure can be acquired. Tractography, the visual display of the direction and magnitude of water diffusion, provides qualitative visualization of complex cellular architecture as well as quantitative diffusion metrics that appear to indirectly reflect physeal activity. In the growing bones, DTI depicts the columns of cartilage and new bone in the physeal-metaphyseal complex. In this "How I do It", we will highlight the value of DTI as a clinical tool by presenting DTI tractography of the physeal-metaphyseal complex of children and adolescents during normal growth, illustrating variation in qualitative and quantitative tractography metrics with age and skeletal location. In addition, we will present tractography from patients with physeal dysfunction caused by growth hormone deficiency and physeal injury due to trauma, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Furthermore, we will delineate our process, or "DTI pipeline," from image acquisition to data interpretation.

Intracultivar genetic diversity in grapevine: Water use efficiency variability within cv. Grenache.

The selection of genotypes best adapted to environmental conditions has traditionally focused on agronomic and grape composition parameters. However, to classify the genotypes most adapted to climate change conditions, the aim must be to focus on the ecophysiological responses that will ultimately determine their performance. The variability in water use efficiency of 13 Grenache genotypes over three-seasons was assessed under field conditions at leaf, grape and plant level. Results showed a significant effect of genotype at all three levels, and despite the large interannual variability there was a remarkable consistency among levels. Furthermore, using genotype-specific regressions it was possible to identify significant differences in the intrinsic water use efficiency response of each genotype as a function of the vine water status. The relationship between net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance, as well as carbon isotope discrimination in grapes, were also confirmed as reliable physiological indicators for selecting grapevine genotypes to future environmental conditions. Therefore, the proposed multi-level methodology was useful to quantify the intracultivar variability and the identification of more and less efficient genotypes within Grenache.

[Factors associated with unsuccessful treatment of patients with drug-sensitive tuberculosis in Paraguay]. / Factores asociados al resultado de tratamiento no exitoso de pacientes con tuberculosis sensible en Paraguay.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the factors associated with the unsuccessful treatment of patients diagnosed with drug-sensitive tuberculosis (TB) in Paraguay. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study, with data collected from the national program between January 2016 and March 2017. Unsuccessful treatment was defined as patients who were lost to follow-up, failed treatment, or died. Factors associated with unsuccessful treatment were determined using Poisson regression; the adjusted relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were estimated by health region. RESULTS: A total of 3 034 cases were studied: 2 189 (72.1%) were successfully treated (cured: 1 221 [40.2%], complete treatment: 968 [31.9%]) and 845 (27.9%) were unsuccessfully treated (treatment failure: 40 [1.3%], loss to follow-up: 466 [15.4%] and deaths: 339 [11.2%]). Factors associated with unsuccessful treatment were masculine sex 1.28 (1.14- 1.42), indigenous descent 1.3 (1.09- 1.54), lack of report of area of residence 1.27 (1.02- 1.57), TB/HIV coinfection 1.97 (1, 63- 2.38), illicit drug addiction 1.38 (1.16- 1.63), alcohol consumption 1.25 (1.02- 1.52), previous treatment 1.23 (1.10- 1.38) and lack of treatment monitoring data 4.92 (3.69- 6.56). Being deprived of liberty 0.65 (0.47- 0.89) and TB/diabetes comorbidity 0.80 (0.67- 0.95) were considered protective factors. CONCLUSION: Paraguay has a high percentage of unsuccessful treatment in almost the entire country, without reaching the target proposed by the World Health Organization. Associated risk factors such as HIV, consumption of legal and illicit drugs, and being indigenous highlight the need to revise the treatment strategies with an inter-institutional approach.

[Low detection rate and therapeutic success of tuberculosis in a prison in EcuadorBaixo recrutamento de pacientes e sucesso no tratamento da tuberculose em uma prisão do Equador]. / Baja captación y éxito en el tratamiento para la tuberculosis en una cárcel de Ecuador.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate the control of pulmonary tuberculosis in a detention center and identify the risk factors associated with unsuccessful treatment in the largest prison in Ecuador. METHODS: Surveillance data from the prison and a cohort of inmates diagnosed with tuberculosis (TB) between 2015 and 2016 were analyzed. Records without treatment outcome information were excluded. The percentage of patients with respiratory symptoms and TB incidence rate were estimated. Factors associated with unsuccessful treatment were estimated with binomial logistic regression. RESULTS: Of 59 846 medical consultations, 3% of respiratory symptoms were identified and, of these, 326 inmates had TB; 184 of them were analyzed. The incidence rate of TB in the prison was 3 947/100 000 inhabitants. Treatment was successful in 70.4% (65.6% cured; 4.8% treatment completed) and unsuccessful in 29.4% (12.5% lost during follow-up, 5% deceased, 1.1% treatment failure, 10.8% not evaluated). Seropositivity for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was associated with an increased risk of unsuccessful treatment (relative risk: 1.66, 95% confidence interval: 1.33-2.07). CONCLUSION: The incidence of TB in the prison was 123 times higher than in the general population of Ecuador. Prisoners co-infected with HIV-TB are at greater risk of not having a successful treatment, and articulation is required between the ministries of health and justice that allows the proper implementation of health protocols and the End TB Strategy.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o controle da tuberculose (TB) pulmonar e identificar os fatores de risco associados ao tratamento malsucedido na maior prisão do Equador. MÉTODOS: Foram analisados os dados de vigilância da prisão e de uma coorte de reclusos da mesma prisão, diagnosticados com TB em 2015 e 2016. Foram excluídos os registros sem resultado do tratamento. A porcentagem de sintomas respiratórios identificados e a taxa de incidência de TB foram estimadas. Os fatores associados ao tratamento malsucedido foram estimados com regressão logística binomial. RESULTADOS: Em 59 846 consultas médicas, 3% dos reclusos foram identificadas com sintomas respiratórios. Entre esses, 326 tinham TB e 184 foram analisados. A taxa de incidência de TB na prisão foi de 3 947/100 000 habitantes. Observou-se tratamento bem-sucedido em 70,4% (65,6% curados e 4,8% com tratamento completo) e malsucedido em 29,4% (12,5% perdidos durante o acompanhamento, 5% morreram, 1,1% com falhas do tratamento e 10,8% sem avaliação). A soropositividade para HIV foi associada a risco aumentado de tratamento malsucedido (risco relativo 1,66; intervalo de confiança de 95%: 1,33 a 2,07). CONCLUSÃO: A incidência de TB na prisão foi 123 vezes maior do que na população geral do Equador. Prisioneiros coinfectados com HIV-TB correm maior risco de não ter tratamento bem-sucedido. É necessária uma articulação entre os ministérios da saúde e da justiça para implementar de forma adequada os protocolos de saúde e da Estratégia pelo Fim da TB.

[Tuberculosis in children and adolescents in Ecuador: analysis of reporting, disease characteristics and treatment outcomeTuberculose em crianças e adolescentes no Equador: análise da notificação, características da doença e resultados do tratamento]. / Tuberculosis en niños y adolescentes en Ecuador: análisis de la notificación, las características de la enfermedad y el resultado del tratamiento.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the tuberculosis (TB) burden in children under 15 years of age and to describe the clinical and epidemiological characteristics and the results of the anti-tuberculosis treatment in Ecuador. METHODS: A retrospective study was carried out using data from the national TB programm for 2015 and 2016. The rate and percentage of cases of childhood TB were estimated and the disease characteristics and treatment outcome were described according to age categories: 0-4, 5-9 and 10-14 years. RESULTS: Of the 10 991 cases of TB diagnosed, 223 (2.03%) were under 15 years of age; depending on the region, this burden ranged from 0 to 5.5%. Of the 223 cases, 213 had their treatment outcome registered and were included in the study; 78 (37%) were younger than 5 years and 147 (69%) had no record of contact screening. Sixty-five (68%) of the adolescents and 40 (51%) of the children under 5 had a diagnosis of pulmonary TB. HIV prevalence was 11.5% in children under 5 and 6.3% in the 10-14 age group. Treatment was succesful in 93% of cases (cure, 36.6%, treatment completed, 56.8%). CONCLUSIONS: Ecuador presents a high percentage of under-diagnosis of childhood TB and a lower than expected burden, mainly in children under 5 years of age. The high prevalence of HIV and the lack of adequate systematization of adolescent contact screening suggest the need to consider family-centered strategies that involve training health personnel in the management of pediatric patients, with a focus on the specific needs of each population.

OBJETIVOS: Estimar a carga de tuberculose (TB) em crianças menores de 15 anos e descrever as características clínicas e epidemiológicas e os resultados do tratamento antituberculose no Equador. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo utilizando dados do programa nacional de TB para os anos de 2015 e 2016. A taxa e a porcentagem de casos de tuberculose infantil foram estimadas. As características da doença e o resultado do tratamento foram descritos de acordo com as categorias de idade: 0 a 4 anos, 5 a 9 anos e 10 a 14 anos. RESULTADOS: Dos 10 991 casos de TB diagnosticados, 223 (2,03%) tinham menos de 15 anos. A carga de TB variou de 0 a 5,5%, dependendo da região do país. Em 213 dos 223 casos, o resultado do tratamento havia sido registrado, possibilitando a inclusão no estudo. Desses, 78 (37%) tinham menos de 5 anos; em 147 (69%) não havia registro da investigação de contato. Sessenta e cinco (68%) dos adolescentes e 40 (51%) dos menores de 5 anos foram diagnosticados com TB pulmonar. A prevalência de HIV foi de 11,5% em crianças menores de 5 anos e de 6,3% no grupo de 10 a 14 anos. O tratamento foi satisfatório em 93% dos casos (cura, 36,6%; tratamento concluído, 56,8%). CONCLUSÕES: O Equador tem uma elevada porcentagem de subdiagnóstico de TB infantil e a carga da doença ficou abaixo do esperado, principalmente em crianças menores de 5 anos. A alta prevalência do HIV e a falta de sistematização da pesquisa de contatos em adolescentes revelam a necessidade de considerar estratégias centradas na família, que envolvam o treinamento de profissionais de saúde no manejo do paciente pediátrico, com foco nas necessidades específicas de cada população.

Determinants of sputum smear nonconversion in smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Suriname, 2010 - 2015.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with sputum smear nonconversion in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) in Suriname. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted using routinely-collected surveillance data of PTB cases reported in January 2010 - December 2015 and recorded in the database of the National Tuberculosis Program of Suriname. Cases were smear-positive PTB patients whose sputum results were negative 2 months after treatment initiation. Controls were the smear-positive PTB patients whose sputum results were negative in the same timeframe. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to examine associations between potential risk factors and smear conversion. RESULTS: The two age groups ≥ 35 years (35 - 54 years, AOR: 2.7, 95%CI: 1.2 - 6.1; and 55+ years, AOR: 2.5, 95%CI: 1.1 - 5.9) and high bacillary load at baseline (AOR 2.34, 95%CI: 1.2 - 4.8) were significantly associated with delayed smear conversion. CONCLUSION: The National TB program of Suriname should develop strategies to address patients at higher risk for delayed smear conversion to prevent further spreading and unfavorable treatment outcomes. To better inform decision-making and future studies, the NTP should expand its data collection to include all risk factors for delayed smear conversion.

Factors associated with mortality in persons co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in Suriname: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify socio-demographic and clinical factors associated with mortality among persons with tuberculosis (TB) and TB/HIV co-infection in Suriname. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study using data from the national TB and HIV databases for 2010 - 2015. The survival probability of TB and TB/HIV co-infected patients was analyzed using the Kaplan-Meier estimates and the log-rank test. A Cox proportional hazard model was applied. RESULTS: The study showed that HIV-seropositivity (aHR: 2.08, 95%CI: 1.48 - 2.92) and older age (aHR: 5.84, 95%CI: 3.00 - 11.4) are statistically associated with higher mortality. For the TB/HIV co-infected patients, TB treatment (aHR: 0.43, 95%CI: 0.35 - 0.53) reduces the risk of death. Similarly, HIV treatment started within 56 days (aHR: 0.15, 95%CI: 0.12 - 0.19) and delayed (aHR: 0.25, 95%CI: 0.13 - 0.47) result in less hazard for mortality; Directly-Observed Treatment (aOR: 0.16, 95%CI: 0.09 - 0.29) further reduces the risk. CONCLUSIONS: The Ministry of Health of Suriname should develop strategies for early case-finding in key populations, such as for HIV and TB in men 60 years of age and older. Implementation of Isoniazid Preventive Therapy for HIV should be pursued. Scaling up TB and HIV treatment, preferably through supervision, are essential to reducing the TB/HIV mortality.

Potential of DosR and Rpf antigens from Mycobacterium tuberculosis to discriminate between latent and active tuberculosis in a tuberculosis endemic population of Medellin Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the most deadly infectious diseases. One-third to one-fourth of the human population is estimated to be infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) without showing clinical symptoms, a condition called latent TB infection (LTBI). Diagnosis of Mtb infection is based on the immune response to a mixture of mycobacterial antigens (PPD) or to Mtb specific ESAT-6/CFP10 antigens (IGRA), highly expressed during the initial phase of infection. However, the immune response to PPD and IGRA antigens has a low power to discriminate between LTBI and PTB. The T-cell response to a group of so-called latency (DosR-regulon-encoded) and Resuscitation Promoting (Rpf) antigens of Mtb has been proved to be significantly higher in LTBI compared to active TB across many populations, suggesting their potential use as biomarkers to differentiate latent from active TB. METHODS: PBMCs from a group LTBI (n = 20) and pulmonary TB patients (PTB, n = 21) from an endemic community for TB of the city of Medellín, Colombia, were in vitro stimulated for 7 days with DosR- (Rv1737c, Rv2029c, and Rv2628), Rpf- (Rv0867c and Rv2389c), the recombinant fusion protein ESAT-6-CFP10 (E6-C10)-, or PPD-antigen. The induced IFNγ levels detectable in the supernatants of the antigen-stimulated cells were then used to calculate specificity and sensitivity in discriminating LTBI from PTB, using different statistical approaches. RESULTS: IFNγ production in response to DosR and Rpf antigens was significantly higher in LTBI compared to PTB. ROC curve analyses of IFNγ production allowed differentiation of LTBI from PTB with areas under the curve higher than 0.70. Furthermore, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) revealed that LTBI is associated with higher levels of IFNγ in response to the different antigens compared to PTB. Analysis based on decision trees showed that the IFNγ levels produced in response to Rv2029c was the leading variable that best-classified disease status. Finally, logistic regression analysis predicted that IFNγ produced by PBMCs in response to E6-C10, Rv2029c, Rv0867c (RpfA) and Rv2389c (RpfA) antigens correlates best with the probability of being latently infected. CONCLUSIONS: The Mtb antigens E6-C10, Rv2029c (PfkB), Rv0867c (RpfA) and Rv2389c (RpfA), may be potential candidates to discriminate LTBI from PTB.

Contrasting trends of tuberculosis in the cities of San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 2005-2014.

Objective To 1) describe and compare the trends of tuberculosis (TB) case notification rates (CNRs) and treatment outcomes in the two largest cities in Honduras (San Pedro Sula and Tegucigalpa) for the period 2005-2014 and 2) identify possible related socioeconomic and health sector factors. Methods This retrospective ecological operational research study used aggregated data from the National TB Program (socioeconomic and health sector information and individual data from the 2014 TB case notification report). Results TB CNRs declined steadily over the study period in Tegucigalpa (from 46 to 28 per 100 000 inhabitants) but remained high in San Pedro Sula (decreasing from 89 to 78 per 100 000 inhabitants). Similar trends were observed for smear-positive TB. While presumptive TB cases examined were similar for both cities, in San Pedro Sula the proportions of presumptive cases with a positive smear; (7.7% versus 3.6%) relapses (8.9% versus 4.2%); and patients lost to follow-up (10.9% versus 2.7%) were significantly higher, and the treatment success lower (75.7% versus 87.0%). San Pedro Sula had lower annual income per capita, fewer public sector health workers and facilities, and a higher and increasing homicide index. The 2014 TB case data from San Pedro Sula showed a significantly lower median age and a higher proportion of assembly plant workers, prisoners, drug abusers, and diabetes. Conclusions The TB rate was higher and treatment success lower, and health care resources and socio-demographic indicators less favorable, in San Pedro Sula versus Tegucigalpa. City authorities, the NTP, and the health sector overall should strengthen early case detection, treatment, and infection control, involving both public and private health sectors.

Culture and drug sensitivity testing among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Mexico: national data for 2009-2013.

This study documented the number and results of mycobacterial culture and drug sensitivity testing (CDST) in Mexico from 2009-2013 and assessed whether states with a higher risk of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) performed more CDST and had more cultures showing MDR-TB. Data for this longitudinal, descriptive, operational research study came from the electronic records of 31 state public health laboratories in Mexico. The total number of CDSTs was 6 470, increasing from 2 143 in the first 2 years to 4 327 in the latter 3 years. There was a significant increase in the proportion of cultures showing sensitivity to all drugs, from 53.1% to 60.9% in 2011-2013 (P < 0.001) and a significant decrease in the proportion showing MDR-TB, from 28.2% in 2009 to 19.8% in 2013 (P < 0.001). Cases of extensively drug resistant tuberculosis were < 1% per year. In the 12 states with higher risk for MDR-TB, significantly more CDSTs (2 382 test) were done in 2011-2013 than in the other 19 states (1 945 tests). Also, for each year the proportion of cultures showing MDR-TB was significantly higher in high risk MDR-TB states than in lower risk ones (P < 0.001). During the 5-year study period, CDST was scaled up in Mexico, particularly in high-risk MDR-TB states where a higher proportion of cultures showed MDR-TB. Scale up and wider coverage of CDST should continue.

Monitoring delays in diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in eight cities in Colombia.

Objective To measure time between onset of tuberculosis (TB) symptoms and start of treatment, and to identify factors associated with delay in eight Colombian cities. Methods Operational research with a retrospective analytical cohort design was conducted in 2014 using routinely collected data about new smear-positive pulmonary TB patients from eight cities in Colombia (Barranquilla, Bogotá, Bucaramanga, Cali, Cúcuta, Medellín, Pereira, and Villavicencio). Date of symptom onset was sourced from TB surveillance databases. Data on all other variables came from National TB Program (NTP) registers. Results There were 2 545 new cases of smear-positive pulmonary TB, but a plausible date of symptom onset was available for only 1 456 (57%). Median number of days between symptom onset and treatment start was 51 days (interquartile range: 27-101). A total of 72% of patients had a delay (> 30 days between symptom onset and treatment start), and 28% had a 3+ bacillary load at diagnosis. Based on multiple logistic regression, three factors were significantly associated with delay: being uninsured (odds ratio (OR): 1.30; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.01-1.68) and having an unknown HIV status (OR: 1.81; CI: 1.04-3.17), which increased risk, and coming from a neighborhood with NTP-employed community health workers, which decreased risk (OR: 0.56; CI: 0.34-0.90). Conclusions Delays still prevent timely TB diagnosis and treatment in Colombia. As the country aims for TB elimination, delays must be reduced, especially in cities and vulnerable neighborhoods, to stop community transmission. The NTP should focus not only on the number of cases detected but also on how long it takes to detect them. To monitor interventions designed to reduce delays, additional dates in the process should be recorded routinely. In addition, reliability and completeness of data are crucial for monitoring.

Use and evaluation of a line probe assay in patients with tuberculosis in Peru: 2011-2013.

Objective To determine the use and performance of a line probe assay (LPA) compared with conventional culture and drug sensitivity testing (CDST) in patients registered with tuberculosis (TB) under routine program conditions in Peru in 2011-2013. Methods This was a descriptive, operational research, cross-sectional study of sputum specimens from patients with smear-positive pulmonary TB and mycobacterial cultures from patients with smear-negative or positive TB. Drug resistance to rifampicin and/or isoniazid detected by LPA was compared to CDST. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values were calculated and reliability for detecting drug resistance was assessed through kappa coefficient, with values 0.61-0.80 showing substantial correlation, and 0.81 or above showing almost-perfect correlation. Results In 2011-2013, there were 16 169 LPA tests performed, with the proportion of TB patients receiving the test increasing from 3.2% to 30.2%. In all, 2 905 LPA test results were compared to CDST. For LPA in sputum specimens, sensitivity for rifampicin was 92%; isoniazid, 94%; and MDR-TB, 88%; while specificity for rifampicin was 92%; isoniazid, 92%; and MDR-TB, 95%. For LPA in mycobacterial cultures, sensitivity for rifampicin was 95%; isoniazid, 96%; and MDR-TB, 90%; while specificity for rifampicin was 85%; isoniazid, 91%; and MDR-TB, 94%. Kappa coefficients were at 0.81 or above for all comparisons of LPA with CDST using sputum specimens and cultures, except for isoniazid in cultures, which was at 0.79. Conclusions This study suggests that LPA is a reliable and rapid screening test for drug-resistant TB and should be considered suitable for routine use and scale up in Peru.

Inflammatory Patterns Associated with Legionella in HIV and Pneumonia Coinfections.

Legionella infections have a propensity for occurring in HIV-infected individuals, with immunosuppressed individuals tending to present with more severe disease. However, understanding regarding the Legionella host response in immune compromised individuals is lacking. This study investigated the inflammatory profiles associated with Legionella infection in patients hospitalized with HIV and pneumonia in Medellín, Colombia from February 2007 to April 2014, and correlated these profiles with clinical outcomes. Sample aliquots from the Colombian cohort were shipped to Canada where Legionella infections and systemic cytokine profiles were determined using real-time PCR and bead-based technology, respectively. To determine the effect of Legionella coinfection on clinical outcome, a patient database was consulted, comparing laboratory results and outcomes between Legionella-positive and -negative individuals. Principal component analysis revealed higher plasma concentrations of eotaxin, IP-10 and MCP-1 (p = 0.0046) during Legionella infection. Individuals with this immune profile also had higher rates of intensive care unit admissions (adjusted relative risk 1.047 [95% confidence interval 1.027-1.066]). Results demonstrate that systemic markers of monocyte/macrophage activation and differentiation (eotaxin, MCP-1, and IP-10) are associated with Legionella infection and worse patient outcomes. Further investigations are warranted to determine how this cytokine profile may play a role in Legionella pneumonia pathogenesis or immunity.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices about air pollution and its health effects in 6th to 11th-grade students in Colombia: a cross-sectional study.

Introduction: Globally, air pollution is the leading environmental cause of disease and premature death. Raising awareness through environmental education and adequate communication on air quality could reduce the adverse effects. We aimed to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding air pollution and health and determine the factors associated with these KAP in children and adolescents. Methods: In 2019-2020, a cross-sectional study was conducted on 6th-11th grade high school students in five municipalities in Colombia. Variables collected included: age, sex, private or public school, any medical history, emergency room visits due to respiratory symptoms in the last year, and whether students played sports. The main exposure was the School Environmental Project. The outcomes were the KAP scale [0% (the lowest score) to 100% (the highest score)]. The factors associated with KAP levels were evaluated with independent mixed regressions due to the multilevel structure of the study (level 1: student; level 2: school), and the exponential coefficients (95% confidence interval-CI) were reported. Results: Among 1,676 students included, 53.8% were females. The median knowledge score about air pollution and its health effects was 33.8% (IQR: 24.0-44.9), 38.6% knew the air quality index, 30.9% knew the air quality alerts that occurred twice a year in these municipalities and 5.3% had high self-perceived knowledge. Positive attitudes, pro-environmental practices, being female, grade level, attending a private school, having respiratory diseases, and the school environmental project importance were associated with higher knowledge scores. The median attitudes score was 78.6% (IQR: 71.4-92.9). Pro-environmental attitudes were associated with knowledge-increasing, being female, attending a private school, and the school environmental project. The median pro-environmental practices score was 28.6% (IQR: 28.6-42.9). During air quality alerts, 11.6% had worn masks, 19% had reduced the opening time of windows and 15.9% avoided leaving home. Pro-environmental practices were associated with knowledge-increasing and attitudes-increasing, and lower practices with higher grade levels, visiting a doctor in the last year, and practicing sports. Discussion: Children and adolescents have low knowledge scores and inadequate pro-environmental practices scores regarding air pollution. However, they demonstrate positive attitudes towards alternative solutions and express important concerns about the planet's future.

Markers of Inflammation, Tissue Damage, and Fibrosis in Individuals Diagnosed with Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Pneumonia: A Cohort Study.

Previous studies have noted that persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience persistent lung dysfunction after an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesized that inflammation during pneumonia triggers increased tissue damage and accelerated pulmonary fibrosis, resulting in a gradual loss of lung function. We carried out a prospective cohort study of people diagnosed with CAP and/or HIV between 2016 and 2018 in three clinical institutions in Medellín, Colombia. Clinical data, blood samples, and pulmonary function tests (PFTs) were collected at baseline. Forty-one patients were included, divided into two groups: HIV and CAP (n = 17) and HIV alone (n = 24). We compared the concentrations of 17 molecules and PFT values between the groups. Patients with HIV and pneumonia presented elevated levels of cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, IL-1RA, IL-10, IP-10, MCP-1, and MIP-1ß) compared to those with only HIV. A marked pulmonary dysfunction was evidenced by significant reductions in FEF25, FEF25-75, and FEV1. The correlation between these immune mediators and lung function parameters supports the connection between pneumonia-associated inflammation and end organ lung dysfunction. A low CD4 cell count (<200 cells/µL) predicted inflammation and lung dysfunction. These results underscore the need for targeted clinical approaches to mitigate the adverse impacts of CAP on lung function in this population.

Does the Recovery of Respiratory Viruses Impact Pulmonary Function at Baseline and 1-, 6-, and 12-Month Follow-Up in People Living with HIV and Pneumonia?

The frequency of respiratory viruses in people living with HIV (PLHIV) and their impact on lung function remain unclear. We aimed to determine the frequency of respiratory viruses in bronchoalveolar lavage and induced sputum samples in PLHIV and correlate their presence with lung function. A prospective cohort of adults hospitalized in Medellín between September 2016 and December 2018 included three groups: group 1 = people diagnosed with HIV and a diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), group 2 = HIV, and group 3 = CAP. People were followed up with at months 1, 6, and 12. Clinical, microbiological, and spirometric data were collected. Respiratory viruses were detected by multiplex RT-PCR. Sixty-five patients were included. At least 1 respiratory virus was identified in 51.9%, 45.1%, and 57.1% of groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Among these, 89% of respiratory viruses were detected with another pathogen, mainly Mycobacterium tuberculosis (40.7%) and Pneumocystis jirovecii (22.2%). The most frequent respiratory virus was rhinovirus (24/65, 37%). On admission, 30.4% of group 1, 16.6% of group 2, and 50% of group 3 had airflow limitation, with alteration in forced expiratory volume at first second in both groups with pneumonia compared to HIV. Respiratory viruses are frequent in people diagnosed with HIV, generally coexisting with other pathogens. Pulmonary function on admission was affected in patients with pneumonia, improving significantly in the 1st, 6th, and 12th months after CAP onset.

Intra-urban variability of long-term exposure to PM2.5 and NO2 in five cities in Colombia.

Rapidly urbanizing cities in Latin America experience high levels of air pollution which are known risk factors for population health. However, the estimates of long-term exposure to air pollution are scarce in the region. We developed intraurban land use regression (LUR) models to map long-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the five largest cities in Colombia. We conducted air pollution measurement campaigns using gravimetric PM2.5 and passive NO2 sensors for 2 weeks during both the dry and rainy seasons in 2021 in the cities of Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellín, and combined these data with geospatial and meteorological variables. Annual models were developed using multivariable spatial regression models. The city annual PM2.5 mean concentrations measured ranged between 12.32 and 15.99 µg/m3 while NO2 concentrations ranged between 24.92 and 49.15 µg/m3. The PM2.5 annual models explained 82% of the variance (R2) in Medellín, 77% in Bucaramanga, 73% in Barranquilla, 70% in Cali, and 44% in Bogotá. The NO2 models explained 65% of the variance in Bucaramanga, 57% in Medellín, 44% in Cali, 40% in Bogotá, and 30% in Barranquilla. Most of the predictor variables included in the models were a combination of specific land use characteristics and roadway variables. Cross-validation suggests that PM2.5 outperformed NO2 models. The developed models can be used as exposure estimate in epidemiological studies, as input in hybrid models to improve personal exposure assessment, and for policy evaluation.

Tuberculosis in Prisons: Importance of Considering the Clustering in the Analysis of Cross-Sectional Studies.

The level of clustering and the adjustment by cluster-robust standard errors have yet to be widely considered and reported in cross-sectional studies of tuberculosis (TB) in prisons. In two cross-sectional studies of people deprived of liberty (PDL) in Medellin, we evaluated the impact of adjustment versus failure to adjust by clustering on prevalence ratio (PR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). We used log-binomial regression, Poisson regression, generalized estimating equations (GEE), and mixed-effects regression models. We used cluster-robust standard errors and bias-corrected standard errors. The odds ratio (OR) was 20% higher than the PR when the TB prevalence was >10% in at least one of the exposure factors. When there are three levels of clusters (city, prison, and courtyard), the cluster that had the strongest effect was the courtyard, and the 95% CI estimated with GEE and mixed-effect models were narrower than those estimated with Poisson and binomial models. Exposure factors lost their significance when we used bias-corrected standard errors due to the smaller number of clusters. Tuberculosis transmission dynamics in prisons dictate a strong cluster effect that needs to be considered and adjusted for. The omission of cluster structure and bias-corrected by the small number of clusters can lead to wrong inferences.