Evaluation of Volatile Metabolites Emitted In-Vivo from Cold-Hardy Grapes during Ripening Using SPME and GC-MS: A Proof-of-Concept.

In this research, we propose a novel concept for a non-destructive evaluation of volatiles emitted from ripening grapes using solid-phase microextraction (SPME). This concept is novel to both the traditional vinifera grapes and the cold-hardy cultivars. Our sample models are cold-hardy varieties in the upper Midwest for which many of the basic multiyear grape flavor and wine style data is needed. Non-destructive sampling included a use of polyvinyl fluoride (PVF) chambers temporarily enclosing and concentrating volatiles emitted by a whole cluster of grapes on a vine and a modified 2 mL glass vial for a vacuum-assisted sampling of volatiles from a single grape berry. We used SPME for either sampling in the field or headspace of crushed grapes in the lab and followed with analyses on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We have shown that it is feasible to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted in-vivo from single grape berries (39 compounds) and whole clusters (44 compounds). Over 110 VOCs were released to headspace from crushed berries. Spatial (vineyard location) and temporal variations in VOC profiles were observed for all four cultivars. However, these changes were not consistent by growing season, by location, within cultivars, or by ripening stage when analyzed by multivariate analyses such as principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analyses (HCA). Research into aroma compounds present in cold-hardy cultivars is essential to the continued growth of the wine industry in cold climates and diversification of agriculture in the upper Midwestern area of the U.S.

Development of Time-Weighted Average Sampling of Odorous Volatile Organic Compounds in Air with Solid-Phase Microextraction Fiber Housed inside a GC Glass Liner: Proof of Concept.

Finding farm-proven, robust sampling technologies for measurement of odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and evaluating the mitigation of nuisance emissions continues to be a challenge. The objective of this research was to develop a new method for quantification of odorous VOCs in air using time-weighted average (TWA) sampling. The main goal was to transform a fragile lab-based technology (i.e., solid-phase microextraction, SPME) into a rugged sampler that can be deployed for longer periods in remote locations. The developed method addresses the need to improve conventional TWA SPME that suffers from the influence of the metallic SPME needle on the sampling process. We eliminated exposure to metallic parts and replaced them with a glass tube to facilitate diffusion from odorous air onto an exposed SPME fiber. A standard gas chromatography (GC) liner recommended for SPME injections was adopted for this purpose. Acetic acid, a common odorous VOC, was selected as a model compound to prove the concept. GC with mass spectrometry (GC⁻MS) was used for air analysis. An SPME fiber exposed inside a glass liner followed the Fick's law of diffusion model. There was a linear relationship between extraction time and mass extracted up to 12 h (R² > 0.99) and the inverse of retraction depth (1/Z) (R² > 0.99). The amount of VOC adsorbed via the TWA SPME using a GC glass liner to protect the SPME was reproducible. The limit of detection (LOD, signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) = 3) and limit of quantification (LOQ, S/N = 5) were 10 and 18 µg·m-3 (4.3 and 7.2 ppbV), respectively. There was no apparent difference relative to glass liner conditioning, offering a practical simplification for use in the field. The new method related well to field conditions when comparing it to the conventional method based on sorbent tubes. This research shows that an SPME fiber exposed inside a glass liner can be a promising, practical, simple approach for field applications to quantify odorous VOCs.

On-farm pilot-scale testing of black ultraviolet light and photocatalytic coating for mitigation of odor, odorous VOCs, and greenhouse gases.

Technologies for controlling gaseous emissions of livestock is of interest to producers, the public, and regulatory agencies. In our previous lab-scale study, the use of a photocatalytic coating on surfaces subjected to black ultraviolet light reduced emissions of key odorant compounds relevant to the livestock industry. Thus, an on-farm pilot-scale experiment was conducted at a commercial swine barn to evaluate a photocatalytic coating on surfaces subjected to ultraviolet light under field conditions. A flow-through reactor was constructed with a TiO2-based photocatalytic coating on the interior surfaces and black ultraviolet light fixtures. The reactor was deployed in a room downstream of the entire swine barn exhaust. Gas samples were collected from three sampling ports in the reactor, one at the inlet (control), the midpoint (half treatment) and the outlet (treatment). Compared to the control, significant reductions in emissions were observed for p-cresol (22%), odor (16%) and nitrous oxide (9%). A significant increase in carbon dioxide (3%) was also measured. Results show that the TiO2-based photocatalytic coating and black UV light are effective in mitigating odor, a key VOC responsible for downwind swine odor, and one important greenhouse effect gas when subjected to swine barn exhaust.

Screening of Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds for Detection of Disease in Cattle: Development of Lab-scale Method.

The primary hurdle for diagnosis of some diseases is the long incubation required to culture and confirm the presence of bacteria. The concept of using microbial VOCs as "signature markers" could provide a faster and noninvasive diagnosis. Finding biomarkers is challenging due to the specificity required in complex matrices. The objectives of this study were to (1) build/test a lab-scale platform for screening of microbial VOCs and (2) apply it to Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis; the vaccine strain of M. bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin; and M. kansasii to demonstrate detection times greater those typically required for culture. SPME-GC-MS was used for sampling, sample preparation, and analyses. For objective (1), a testing platform was built for headspace sampling of bacterial cultures grown in standard culture flasks via a biosecure closed-loop circulating airflow system. For (2), results show that the suites of VOCs produced by Mycobacteria ssp. change over time and that individual strains produce different VOCs. The developed method was successful in discriminating between strains using a pooled multi-group analysis, and in timepoint-specific multi- and pair-wise comparisons. The developed testing platform can be useful for minimally invasive and biosecure collection of biomarkers associated with human, wildlife and livestock diseases for development of diagnostic point-of-care and field surveillance.

Use of fecal volatile organic compound analysis to discriminate between non-vaccinated and BCG-Vaccinated cattle prior to and after Mycobacterium bovis challenge.

Bovine tuberculosis is a zoonotic disease of global public health concern. Development of diagnostic tools to improve test accuracy and efficiency in domestic livestock and enable surveillance of wildlife reservoirs would improve disease management and eradication efforts. Use of volatile organic compound analysis in breath and fecal samples is being developed and optimized as a means to detect disease in humans and animals. In this study we demonstrate that VOCs present in fecal samples can be used to discriminate between non-vaccinated and BCG-vaccinated cattle prior to and after Mycobacterium bovis challenge.

Summary of performance data for technologies to control gaseous, odor, and particulate emissions from livestock operations: Air management practices assessment tool (AMPAT).

The livestock and poultry production industry, regulatory agencies, and researchers lack a current, science-based guide and data base for evaluation of air quality mitigation technologies. Data collected from science-based review of mitigation technologies using practical, stakeholders-oriented evaluation criteria to identify knowledge gaps/needs and focuses for future research efforts on technologies and areas with the greatest impact potential is presented in the Literature Database tab on the air management practices tool (AMPAT). The AMPAT is web-based (available at www.agronext.iastate.edu/ampat) and provides an objective overview of mitigation practices best suited to address odor, gaseous, and particulate matter (PM) emissions at livestock operations. The data was compiled into Excel spreadsheets from a literature review of 265 papers was performed to (1) evaluate mitigation technologies performance for emissions of odor, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), particulate matter (PM), and greenhouse gases (GHGs) and to (2) inform future research needs.

Efficiency of pretreatments for optimal enzymatic saccharification of soybean fiber.

The effectiveness of several pretreatments [high-power ultrasound, sulfuric acid (H(2)SO(4)), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and ammonium hydroxide (NH(3)OH)] to enhance glucose production from insoluble fractions recovered from enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction processing of extruded full-fat soybean flakes (FFSF) was investigated. Sonication of the insoluble fraction at 144 µm(pp (peak-to-peak)) for 30 and 60s did not improve the saccharification yield. The solid fractions recovered after pretreatment with H(2)SO(4) [1% (w/w), 90°C, 1.5h], NaOH [15% (w/w), 65°C, 17 h], and NH(3)OH [15% (w/w), 65°C, 17 h] showed significant lignin degradation, i.e., 81.9%, 71.2%, and 75.4%, respectively, when compared to the control (7.4%). NH(3)OH pretreatment resulted in the highest saccharification yield (63%) after 48 h of enzymatic saccharification. A treatment combining the extraction and saccharification steps and applied directly to the extruded FFSF, where oil extraction yield and saccharification yield reached 98% and 43%, respectively, was identified.

Comparison and optimization of enzymatic saccharification of soybean fibers recovered from aqueous extractions.

Soybean insoluble fractions recovered from aqueous extraction processing (AEP) and enzyme-assisted AEP (EAEP) of full-fat soybean flakes (FFSF) and extruded FFSF were evaluated as a feedstock for the production of fermentable sugars using enzymes. Among the four insoluble fractions (AEP FFSF, EAEP FFSF, AEP extruded FFSF and EAEP extruded FFSF), the composition analysis revealed that the one recovered from EAEP of extruded FFSF had the highest glucan content, 16% [dry basis (db)], as compared to about 10% (db) for the other fractions. Thirty-three percent of the initial glucan of the insoluble recovered from AEP and EAEP of FFSF were converted into glucose using 33 FPU of Accellerase 1000/g-glucan. This saccharification yield was increased to 44% with extruded fibers. The higher saccharification yield of 49% was obtained at 45 °C, 1% glucan loading, and 101 FPU/g-glucan enzymes loading after 27 h of hydrolysis.