Enhancing parental reflective functioning: A special tribute to the life and work of Nancy E. Suchman, PhD.

Nancy E. Suchman's contributions to the fields of infant mental health, maternal reflective functioning, and attachment-based intervention will have long-lasting impacts. In particular, through the development and dissemination of her intervention program, Mothering from the Inside Out (MIO), she innovated a way of working with mothers with substance use disorders that represented a paradigm shift within the field of addiction. In this introduction to the special issue, written to honor her life and work, we review Nancy's background and briefly describe her academic accomplishments. The special issue contains nine qualitative and quantitative research reports written by Nancy's colleagues and their collaborators. All nine papers pertain to the theme of understanding, measuring, and promoting parents' capacity for reflective functioning. Four provide findings that advance our understanding of parental reflective functioning. The other five highlight insights from continuing evaluations of MIO, including new adaptations of the model. To introduce the special issue, we provide an overview of the scope of the work done within these projects. Finally, the special issue concludes with two commentaries contributed by Linda Mayes and Arietta Slade, leading scholars within the field who were also Nancy's close colleagues. Both provide insight into Nancy's impact on the field.

Las contribuciones de Nancy E Suchman a los campos de la salud mental infantil, del funcionamiento materno con reflexión y de la intervención con base en la afectividad tendrá un impacto duradero. Particularmente a través del desarrollo y divulgación de su programa de intervención, Cuidados Maternales de Dentro hacia Afuera (MIO), ella es innovadora de una manera de trabajar con madres con trastornos de uso de sustancias, lo cual representa un cambio de paradigma dentro del campo de la adicción. En esta introducción al número especial, dedicado en honor a su vida y trabajo, se examina la trayectoria profesional de Nancy y brevemente se describen sus logros académicos. El número especial contiene nueve reportes de investigación cualitativa y cuantitativa, escritos por colegas y colaboradores de Nancy. Todos los nueve ensayos se refieren al tema de cómo comprender, medir y promover la capacidad de los progenitores para el funcionamiento con reflexión. Cuatro de ellos aportan resultados que profundizan nuestra comprensión del funcionamiento con reflexión del progenitor. Los otros cinco resaltan ideas de las continuas evaluaciones del MIO, incluyendo nuevas adaptaciones del modelo. Para introducir el número especial, presentamos una revisión general del alcance del trabajo llevado a cabo en estos proyectos. Finalmente, el número especial concluye con dos comentarios que son contribución de Linda Mayes y Arietta Slade, líderes investigadoras profesionales dentro del campo y quienes también fueron colegas allegadas a Nancy. Ambas aportan ideas sobre el impacto que Nancy tiene en su campo.

Les contributions de Nancy E. Suchman aux domaines de la santé mentale du nourrisson et de la petite enfance, du fonctionnement de réflexion maternel et de l'intervention basée sur l'attachement auront des impacts à long terme. Plus particulièrement, au travers du développement et de la dissémination de son programme d'intervention Mothering from the Inside Out (MOI, en français le Maternage de l'Intérieur), elle a tracé une nouvelle voix innovatrice de travail avec des mères toxicomanes, voix représentant un changement de paradigme au sein même du domaine de l'addiction. Dans cette introduction à ce numéro spécial, écrite afin d'honorer sa vie et son travail, nous passons en revue le contexte personnel de Nancy et décrivons brièvement ses réalisations académiques. Ce numéro spécial contient neuf rapports de recherches qualitatives et quantitatives écrits par les collègues de Nancy et ses collaboratrices et collaborateurs. Ces neufs articles portent sur le thème de la compréhension, la mesure et la promotion de la capacité des parents à se consacrer au fonctionnement de réflexion. Quatre de ces articles offrent des conclusions qui font avancer notre compréhension du fonctionnement de réflexion parental. Les autres cinq articles mettent en lumière le travail émanant d'évaluations en cours du MOI, y compris de nouvelles adaptations du modèle. Pour présenter ce numéro spécial nous offrons un survol de la portée du travail fait au sein de ces projets. Enfin, ce numéro spécial conclut avec deux commentaires présentés par Linda Mayes et Arietta Slade, grandes spécialistes au sein de ce domaine de recherche, qui étaient aussi les proches collègues de Nancy. Elles nous offrent toutes deux un aperçu de l'impact qu'a eu Nancy sur ce domaine de recherches.

Self-report measure of parental reflective functioning: A study of reliability and validity across three samples of varying clinical risk.

The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ) provides an efficient way to measure a parent's capacity to recognize their child's mental states and to understand the relationship between underlying mental states and behavior. To date, limited work evaluates its psychometric properties beyond initial validation studies. Here we examined the reliability and validity of the PRFQ in three samples of varying clinical risk (e.g., community sample, previous mental health diagnosis, substance use disorder diagnosis). Across samples, the majority (e.g., 75%-78%) of mothers identified as White; all mothers were from the USA. We compared the PRFQ to task-based measures of mentalization, the Parent Development Interview (PDI), and measures of the parent-child relationship. The PRFQ was a reliable measure across samples, and it was associated in theoretically consistent ways with task-based measures of mentalization. Parental RF across the PDI and PRFQ were not highly correlated in a sample of mothers with substance use disorders. Existing RF measures may be tapping into a different component of the broader construct of parental reflective functioning (PRF). The PRFQ was further validated by demonstrating relationships with parent-report measures of the parent-child relationship. Taken together, these findings provide additional support for the reliability and validity of the PRFQ.

El Cuestionario del Funcionamiento con Reflexión del Progenitor (PRFQ) aporta una manera eficaz de medir la capacidad del progenitor para reconocer los estados mentales de su niño y comprender la relación entre los estados mentales subyacentes y el comportamiento. A la fecha, un trabajo limitado evalúa sus propiedades sicométricas más allá de los estudios de validación inicial. Aquí examinamos la confiabilidad y validez del PRFQ en tres grupos muestra de riesgo clínico variado (v.g. grupo comunitario, previa diagnosis de salud mental, diagnosis de trastorno por uso de sustancias). A través de los grupos muestra, la mayoría (v.g., 75-78%) de las madres se identifican como blancas; todas las madres eran de los Estados Unidos. Comparamos el PRFQ con medidas de mentalización basadas en tareas, la Entrevista del Desarrollo del Progenitor (PDI), y medidas de la relación progenitor-niño. El PRFQ fue una medida confiable a lo largo de los grupos muestra, y se asoció de maneras teoréticamente consistentes con las medidas de mentalización basadas en tareas. El funcionamiento con reflexión del progenitor a lo largo del PDI y PRFQ no se correlacionaron altamente en un grupo muestra de madres con trastornos de uso de sustancias. Las medidas del funcionamiento con reflexión existentes pudieran sacar provecho de un componente diferente de la más amplia edificación del funcionamiento con reflexión del progenitor. Se validó además el PRFQ por medio de demostrar las relaciones con las medidas auto reportadas por el progenitor de la relación progenitor-niño. Tomados en conjunto, estos resultados aportan un apoyo adicional para la confiabilidad y validez del PRFQ.

Le Questionnaire de Fonctionnement de Réflexion Parental (QFRP) offre une manière efficace de mesurer la capacité d'un parent à reconnaître les états mentaux de leur enfant et de comprendre la relation entre les états mentaux sous-jacents et le comportement. Jusqu'à présent peu d'études ont évalué ses propriétés psychométriques au-delà des études initiales de validation. Nous examinons ici la fiabilité et la validité du QFRP chez trois échantillons de risque clinique varié (soit un échantillon communautaire, un diagnostic de santé mentale précédent, un diagnostic de trouble lié à l'usage d'une substance). Au travers des échantillons la majorité (c'est-à-dire 75-78%) des mères se sont identifiées comme étant blanches et toutes les mères étaient américaines (des USA). Nous avons comparé le QFRP à des mesures de mentalisation faites à partir d'une tâche, à l'Entretien de Développement du Parent (en anglais Parent Development Interview, soit PDI), et à des mesures de la relation parent-enfant. Le QFRP s'est avéré être une mesure fiable au travers des échantillons et était lié de manières théoriquement cohérentes à des mesures de mentalisation (basées sur des tâches). Le FR parental au travers du PDI et le QFRP n'étaient pas fortement liés chez un échantillon de mères avec un trouble lié à l'usage d'une substance. Il est possible que les mesures FR qui existent puisent dans un composant différent de la structure plus large du fonctionnement de réflexion parental, Le QFRP a été en outre validé par la démonstration de la relation entre les mesures rapportées par les parents de la relation parent-enfant. Pris dans l'ensemble ces résultats offrent un soutien supplémentaire pour la fiabilité et la validité du QFRP.

Mothering from the Inside Out: Results of a community-based randomized efficacy trial testing a mentalization-based parenting intervention for mothers with addictions.

Mothering from the Inside Out (MIO) is a mentalization-based parenting intervention developed to address challenges common among mothers experiencing substance use disorders (SUDs) and previously deemed effective when delivered by research clinicians. This randomized clinical trial was designed to test the efficacy of MIO when delivered by community-based addiction counselors in Connecticut, USA. Ninety-four mothers [M(SD)age = 31.01(4.01) years; 75.53% White] caring for a child 11-60 months of age were randomly assigned to participate in 12 sessions of either MIO or psychoeducation. Caregiving, psychiatric, and substance use outcomes were assessed repeatedly from baseline through 12-week follow-up. Mothers who participated in MIO showed decreased certainty about their child's mental states, and decreased depression; their children demonstrated increased clarity of cues. Participation in MIO was not associated with the same degree of improvement that was observed in prior trials where MIO was delivered by research clinicians. However, when delivered by community-based clinicians, MIO may be protective against a deterioration in caregiving over time often seen in mothers with addictions. The drop in efficacy of MIO in this trial raises questions about intervention-intervenor fit. Research should examine factors influencing MIO effectiveness to close the science-to-service gap common in the dissemination of empirically validated interventions.

Cuidados Maternales desde Dentro (MIO) es una intervención de crianza con base en la mentalización desarrollada para discutir los retos que son comunes entre las madres que experimentan trastornos de uso de sustancias (SUD) y que previamente eran considerados eficaces cuando los ofrecían los investigadores clínicos. Este ensayo clínico al azar se diseñó para examinar la efectividad de MIO cuando la ofrecen consejeros en asuntos de adicción con base en la comunidad, en Connecticut, Estados Unidos. Noventa y cuatro madres [M(SD) edad = 31.01(4.01) años; 75.53% blancas] con un niño de 11 a 60 meses de edad bajo su cuidado fueron asignadas al azar para participar en 12 sesiones, ya sea de MIO o de psicoeducación. Los resultados del cuidado prestado, los siquiátricos y los de uso de sustancia se evaluaron repetidamente a partir de los datos básicos hasta el seguimiento a las 12 semanas. Las madres que participaron en MIO mostraron una disminución en la certeza acerca de los estados mentales de sus niños, y una disminución en la depresión; sus niños demostraron un aumento en la claridad de las señales. La participación en MIO no se asoció con el mismo grado de mejoramiento que se observó en ensayos previos en los que MIO fue ofrecido por investigadores clínicos. Sin embargo, cuando es ofrecido por clínicos con base comunitaria, MIO pudiera servir de protección contra el deterioro de la prestación de cuidado a lo largo del tiempo, a menudo visto en madres con adicciones. La disminución de la efectividad de MIO en este ensayo genera preguntas acerca de cuán compenetrados está el interventor con la intervención. La investigación debe examinar factores que influyan en la efectividad de MIO para cerrar el vacío entre servicio y ciencia, común en la diseminación de las intervenciones empíricamente validadas.

Le maternage de l'intérieur (abrégé ici MIO pour reprendre l'anglais Mothering from the Inside Out) est une intervention de parentage basée sur la mentalisation, développée afin de répondre aux défis courants chez les mères ayant un trouble lié à l'usage d'une substance (TUS) et préalablement considérée comme efficace lorsque faite par des chercheurs cliniques. Cette étude clinique randomisée a été conçue pour tester l'efficacité du MIO lorsque offert par des intervenants en dépendance communautaires dans l'état du Connecticut aux Etats-Unis. Quatre-vingt-dix-neuf mères [M(SD)âge = 31,01(4,01) ans; 75,53% blanches] prenant soin d'un enfant de 11-60 mois ont été réparties au hasard pour participer soit au MIO soit à une psychoéducation. Les résultats de soins, les résultats psychiatriques et les résultats de toxicomanie ont été évalués de façon répétée de la base jusqu'au suivi à 12 semaines. Les mères ayant participé au MIO ont fait preuve d'une certitude diminuée à propos des états mentaux de leur enfant, et d'une dépression diminuée; leurs enfants ont fait preuve d'une clarté des indices accrue. La participation au MIO n'était pas liée au même degré d'amélioration qui a été observé dans les études préalables quand le MIO a été utilisé par des chercheurs cliniciens. Cependant, lorsqu'administré par des cliniciens communautaires, le MIO pourrait s'avérer protecteur d'une détérioration dans les soins au fil du temps que l'on voit souvent chez les mères toxicomanes. Le déclin d'efficacité du MIO dans cette étude soulève des questions quant à l'ajustement intervention-intervenant. Les recherches devraient se pencher sur les facteurs influençant l'efficacité du MIO pour réduire l'écart de la science au service dans la dissémination d'intervention validées empiriquement.

Does maternal reflective functioning mediate associations between representations of caregiving with maternal sensitivity in a high-risk sample?

Although it is known that mothers with substance abuse disorders struggle to provide adequate parenting to their children, little is understood about the mechanisms behind this. This cross-sectional study uses an attachment perspective to examine whether reflective functioning mediates the relationship between mental representations of caregiving and maternal sensitivity, in an ethnically diverse sample of 142 substance-abusing mothers (M [SD] = 29.83 [5.79] years of age) and their toddlers (M [SD] = 24.04 [15.15] months of age). Data were baseline measures from two randomized controlled trials. The three variables of primary interest were positively correlated. As expected, there was a significant relationship between mental representations of caregiving and maternal sensitivity that was largely explained by reflective functioning. Confounding and alternate explanations were not supported by a secondary data analyses. The findings underscore the importance of reflective functioning in positive parenting within this high-risk population of mothers, and they provide support for the development of attachment-based interventions.

IMPLEMENTATION OF AN EVIDENCED-BASED PARENTING PROGRAM IN A COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH SETTING.

The process of mental health intervention implementation with vulnerable populations is not well-described in the literature. The authors worked as a community-partnered team to adapt and pilot an empirically supported intervention program for mothers of infants and toddlers in an outpatient mental health clinic that primarily serves a low-income community. We used qualitative ethnographic methods to document the adaption of an evidence-based intervention, Mothering from the Inside Out, and the pilot implementation in a community mental health clinic. Seventeen mothers and their identified 0- to 84-month-old children were enrolled in the study. Key lessons from this implementation include (a) the importance of formative work to build community relationships and effectively adapt the intervention to meet the needs of the therapists and their clients, (b) the importance of designing plans for training and reflective supervision that fit within the flow of the clinic and can tolerate disruptions, and (c) that use of an interdisciplinary approach is feasible with the development of a plan for communication and the support of a trained reflective clinical supervisor. These key lessons advance the scientific knowledge available to healthcare managers and researchers who are looking to adapt mental health clinical interventions previously tested in clinical trials to implementation in community settings.

Trajectories of emotional-behavioral difficulty and academic competence: A 6-year, person-centered, prospective study of affluent suburban adolescents.

This longitudinal study of affluent suburban youth (N = 319) tracked from 6th to 12th grade is parsed into two segments examining prospective associations concerning emotional-behavioral difficulties and academic achievement. In Part 1 of the investigation, markers of emotional-behavioral difficulty were used to cluster participants during 6th grade. Generalized estimating equations were then used to document between-cluster differences in academic competence from 6th to 12th grade. In Part 2 of the study, indicators of academic competence were used to cluster the same students during 6th grade, and generalized estimating equations were used to document between-cluster differences in emotional-behavioral difficulty from 6th to 12th grade. The results from Part 1 indicated that patterns of emotional-behavioral difficulty during 6th grade were concurrently associated with poorer grades and classroom adjustment with some group differences in the rate of change in classroom adjustment over time. In Part 2, patterns of academic competence during 6th grade were concurrently associated with less emotional-behavioral difficulty and some group differences in the rate of change in specific forms of emotional-behavioral difficulty over time. These results suggest that the youth sampled appeared relatively well adjusted and any emotional-behavioral-achievement difficulty that was evident at the start of middle school was sustained through the end of high school.

Mothering From the Inside Out: Results of a second randomized clinical trial testing a mentalization-based intervention for mothers in addiction treatment.

Mothers with histories of alcohol and drug addiction have shown greater difficulty parenting young children than mothers with no history of substance misuse. This study was the second randomized clinical trial testing the efficacy of Mothering From the Inside Out (MIO), a 12-week mentalization-based individual therapy designed to address psychological deficits commonly associated with chronic substance use that also interfere with the capacity to parent young children. Eighty-seven mothers caring for a child between 11 and 60 months of age were randomly assigned to receive 12 sessions of MIO versus 12 sessions of parent education (PE), a psychoeducation active control comparison. Maternal reflective functioning, representations of caregiving, mother-child interaction quality, and child attachment were evaluated at baseline and posttreatment and 3-month follow-up. Mother-child interaction quality was assessed again at 12-month follow-up. In comparison with PE mothers, MIO mothers demonstrated a higher capacity for reflective functioning and representational coherence at posttreatment and 3-month follow-up. At 12-month follow-up, compared to PE cohorts, MIO mothers demonstrated greater sensitivity, their children showed greater involvement, and MIO dyads showed greater reciprocity. As addiction severity increased, MIO also appeared to serve as a protective factor for maternal reflective functioning, quality of mother-child interactions, and child attachment status. Results demonstrate the promise of mentalization-based interventions provided concomitant with addiction treatment for mothers and their young children.

Mothering from the Inside Out: results of a pilot study testing a mentalization-based therapy for mothers enrolled in mental health services.

Mothers who are involved with mental health services (for themselves or their children) rarely receive adequate support for their role as parents. Mental illness in a parent or child often exacerbates the challenges of managing psychological distress that is germane to the parenting roll. Mentalization-based approaches to psychotherapy for parents have the potential to address challenges of emotional regulation in parents by supporting their capacity to recognize and modulate negative affect during stressful parenting situations. In this study, we piloted Mothering from the Inside Out (MIO) with 17 mothers receiving services at a community-based mental health clinic. MIO is a 12-week, mentalization-based parenting intervention that demonstrated efficacy in two previous randomized controlled trials with substance using mothers. In this study, we were interested in determining whether community-based clinicians could deliver MIO with sustained fidelity. We were also interested in examining the preliminary feasibility, acceptability and efficacy of MIO when delivered by clinicians in a community mental health center. Finally, we were interested in replicating prior tests of the proposed treatment mechanisms. Treatment outcomes included maternal reflective functioning, psychiatric and parenting stress, and mother-child interaction quality. Our findings indicated that MIO was feasible and acceptable when delivered in the community-based setting and that all maternal indices improved. However, no improvement in mother-child interaction quality was found, possibly because of insufficient time for these changes to consolidate.

Gender moderates the relationship between impulsivity and sexual risk-taking in a cocaine-using psychiatric outpatient population.

Adults who abuse substances are at increased risk for contracting sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Within this population, sexual risk behaviors have been associated with increased impulsivity. Studies in non-clinical populations showing gender-related differences in sexual decision-making and casual sexual partnering suggest impulsivity has a greater influence on men than women, but these differences have not been documented in substance-using patients. In a sample of 89 adults with recent cocaine use and receiving outpatient psychiatric treatment, we tested the hypothesis that gender moderates the effect of impulsivity on sexual risk-taking. Using logistic regression modeling, we tested the main and gender-moderated effects of task-related impulsivity on the probability of having a casual sexual partner and multiple sexual partners. Results confirmed a significant gender-by-impulsivity interaction; men who were more impulsive on a continuous performance task had significantly higher rates of sexual risk-taking than less impulsive men, but women's impulsivity was unrelated to these outcomes. Impulsive men were over three times as likely as less impulsive men to have a recent casual partner. Implications of these results and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Expressive writing as a therapeutic process for drug-dependent women.

BACKGROUND: Although women with substance use disorders (SUDs) have high rates of trauma and posttraumatic stress, many addiction programs do not offer trauma-specific treatments. One promising intervention is Pennebaker's expressive writing, which involves daily, 20-minute writing sessions to facilitate disclosure of stressful experiences. METHODS: Women (N = 149) in residential treatment completed a randomized clinical trial comparing expressive writing with control writing. Repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to document change in psychological and physical distress from baseline to 2-week and 1-month follow-ups. Analyses also examined immediate levels of negative affect following expressive writing. RESULTS: Expressive writing participants showed greater reductions in posttraumatic symptom severity, depression, and anxiety scores, when compared with control writing participants at the 2-week follow-up. No group differences were found at the 1-month follow-up. Safety data were encouraging: although expressive writing participants showed increased negative affect immediately after each writing session, there were no differences in pre-writing negative affect scores between conditions the following day. By the final writing session, participants were able to write about traumatic/stressful events without having a spike in negative affect. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that expressive writing may be a brief, safe, low-cost, adjunct to SUD treatment that warrants further study as a strategy for addressing posttraumatic distress in substance-abusing women.

ATTACHMENT-BASED INTERVENTION FOR SUBSTANCE-USING MOTHERS: A PRELIMINARY TEST OF THE PROPOSED MECHANISMS OF CHANGE.

Although randomized controlled trials examining the efficacy of attachment-based interventions have been increasing in recent years, adequate measurement of treatment integrity, integrity-outcome associations, and mechanisms of change has been rare. The aim of this investigation was to conduct a rigorous test of proposed mechanisms of change in the Mothers and Toddlers Program (MTP) treatment model, a 12-session, attachment-based individual therapy for substance-using mothers of children birth to 3 years of age. The MTP aims to improve maternal reflective functioning (RF) and representation quality (RQ) to bring about second-order change in maternal caregiving behavior. Following guidelines from M.K. Nock (2007), it was hypothesized that (a) therapist adherence to unique MTP treatment components would uniquely predict improvement in RF and RQ and that (b) improvement in RF and RQ would function as unique mechanisms of change (when compared with other potential mechanisms-reduction in depression and increase in abstinence from drug use) in the improvement of caregiving behavior. Findings supported each hypothesis, confirming the proposed mechanisms of the treatment model. However, improvement in maternal depression also uniquely predicted improvement in caregiving behavior. Results underscore the potential value of attachment-based parenting interventions for improving mother-child relations and the importance of providing these interventions in clinic settings where mothers have access to comprehensive care (e.g., psychiatric services).

Reflective functioning in mothers with addictions: Differential relationships involving family history of mental illness and substance use.

Parental reflective functioning (RF) is often cited as an important domain in which mothers with addictions struggle in their roles as parents, though the links between addiction and RF remain unclear. Exposure to attachment trauma associated with parental mental illness and substance use is commonly associated with both addiction and lower RF. We thus examined how family history of parental mental illness and substance use may relate to the RF of mothers with addictions. One hundred ninety-four mothers in outpatient substance use treatment completed the Parent Development Interview and provided information about whether their mothers and fathers experienced mental illness or problems with substance use. Univariate ANOVAs revealed an interaction between family history of maternal mental illness and maternal substance use. Among mothers with a history of maternal substance use, those with a history of maternal mental illness had higher RF than those who had no history of maternal mental illness. Among mothers who did not report a family history of maternal mental illness, mothers who had a family history of maternal substance use exhibited significantly lower RF than mothers with no family history of maternal substance use. Exposure to paternal mental illness or substance use was not associated with mothers' RF. These findings highlight the importance of disentangling the contributions of attachment trauma to mothers' RF and utilizing interventions that support mothers' capacity to reflect about how their early experiences of being cared for by a mother with a mental illness or addiction may impact their current caregiving behaviors.

The impact of fatherhood on treatment response for men with co-occurring alcohol dependence and intimate partner violence.

OBJECTIVE: The role of fathers in the lives of children has gained increasing attention over the last several decades, however, studies that specifically examine the parenting role among men who are alcohol dependent and have co-occurring intimate partner violence (IPV) have been limited. This brief report is intended to highlight the need to develop and focus interventions for men with co-occurring substance abuse and IPV with an emphasis on their roles as fathers. METHOD: Sixty-nine men who participated in a randomized comparison study of a coordinated substance abuse and domestic violence treatment program (SADV) and Twelve Step Facilitation (TSF) provided information about whether they were fathers. Analysis of covariance was used to assess the impact of fatherhood on the outcomes of intimate partner violence and alcohol use during the 12 weeks of treatment. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction between type of treatment (SADV vs. TSF) and fatherhood. SADV resulted in significantly less IPV and use of alcohol over the 12 weeks of treatment than TSF for men without children. There were no significant differences between SADV and TSF for men who were fathers. CONCLUSION AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Results indicate a need to further explore the role of fatherhood for men with co-occurring substance abuse and IPV and development of specialized treatments that may improve treatment outcomes for fathers.

THE MOTHERS AND TODDLERS PROGRAM, AN ATTACHMENT-BASED PARENTING INTERVENTION FOR SUBSTANCE-USING WOMEN: RESULTS AT 6-WEEK FOLLOW-UP IN A RANDOMIZED CLINICAL PILOT.

Previously, we reported posttreatment findings from a randomized pilot study testing a new attachment-based parenting intervention for mothers enrolled in substance-use treatment and caring for children ages birth to 3 years (N.E. Suchman, C. DeCoste, N. Castiglioni, T. McMahon, B. Rounsaville, & L. Mayes, 2010). The Mothers and Toddlers Program (MTP) is a 12-session, weekly individual parenting therapy that aims to enhance maternal capacity for reflective functioning and soften harsh and distorted mental representations of parenting. In a randomized pilot study, 47 mothers who were enrolled in outpatient substance-abuse treatment and caring for children between birth and 3 years of age were randomized to the MTP versus the Parent Education Program (PE), a comparison intervention that provided individual case management and developmental guidance. At the end of treatment, mothers in the MTP condition demonstrated better reflective functioning, representation quality, and caregiving behavior than did mothers in the PE condition. In this investigation, we examined whether the benefits of MTP at posttreatment were sustained at the 6-week follow-up. Recently, we also identified two components of parental reflective functioning: (a) a self-focused component representing the parent's capacity to mentalize about strong personal emotions (e.g., anger, guilt, or pain) and their impact on the child and (b) a child-focused component representing the parent's capacity to mentalize about the child's emotions and their impact on the mother (N. Suchman, C. DeCoste, D. Leigh, & J. Borelli, 2010). In this study, we reexamined posttreatment outcomes using these two related, but distinct, constructs.

Maladaptive Coping as a Mediator of Family Stress.

Family members of women substance users may be at risk for stress-related problems. Family coping responses may affect outcomes for both families and women in treatment. Eighty-two women in treatment for substance use disorders (56 with comorbid psychiatric conditions) and 82 family members were interviewed. Stressors related to women's disorders were significantly related to increased family member burden. Women's behavioral problems predicted greater family member Worry, Displeasure, and Impact. Extent of women's drug or alcohol use predicted greater family member Stigma and Impact. Family member maladaptive coping partially mediated relationships between family member stressors and family member Displeasure and Impact. Family member maladaptive coping also functioned as a moderator between the stressors and Impact.

Mothering from the Inside Out: Addressing the Intersection of Addiction, Adversity, and Attachment with Evidence-Based Parenting Intervention.

Purpose of Review: Mothers with substance use disorders are often referred for parenting support, though commonly available programs may miss the mark for families impacted by addiction. This may be related to a lack of attention to children's emotional needs, mothers' histories of adversity, and the neurobiological differences seen in mothers with addictions. We review the implications of addiction, adversity, and attachment for parenting interventions. We then describe Mothering from the Inside Out (MIO), an evidence-based parenting intervention designed specifically for mothers with addictions. Recent Findings: Evidence from clinical trials suggests that MIO improves outcomes for two generations: both mothers with addictions and their children. Recent trials demonstrate that MIO may be delivered effectively by community-based clinicians and may be beneficial for parents with other chronic stressors. Summary: Addressing addiction, adversity, and attachment simultaneously may have a positive synergistic effect. Future research should study the implementation of MIO in real-world settings and examine the impact of MIO on maternal neurobiology.

The Mothers and Toddlers Program, an attachment-based parenting intervention for substance using women: post-treatment results from a randomized clinical pilot.

This is a report of post-treatment findings from a completed randomized pilot study testing the preliminary efficacy of the Mothers and Toddlers Program (MTP), a 12 week attachment-based individual parenting therapy for mothers enrolled in substance abuse treatment and caring for children ages birth to 36 months. Forty-seven mothers were randomized to MTP versus the Parent Education Program (PE), a comparison intervention providing individual case management and child guidance brochures. At post-treatment, MTP mothers demonstrated better reflective functioning in the Parent Development Interview, representational coherence and sensitivity, and caregiving behavior than PE mothers. Partial support was also found for proposed mechanisms of change in the MTP model. Together, preliminary findings suggest that attachment-based interventions may be more effective than traditional parent training for enhancing relationships between substance using women and their young children.

A randomized pilot trial of two parenting interventions for fathers in residential substance use disorder treatment.

Residential substance misuse treatment programs for men typically do not integrate treatment for intimate partner violence (IPV) or parenting despite significant overlap between substance misuse, IPV and child maltreatment. A randomized trial compared two fatherhood focused interventions in 6-month residential substance misuse treatment programs. Fathers for Change (F4C) is an integrated intervention targeting IPV and child maltreatment. Dads 'n' Kids (DNK) is a psychoeducational intervention focused on child development and behavioral parenting skills. Sixty-two fathers were randomly assigned to F4C or DNK. They received 12 weeks of individual treatment while in the residential facility and were offered 4 aftercare sessions following discharge. They were assessed prior to treatment, at the time of residential discharge, following completion of the intervention booster sessions, and 3 months following intervention. Overall, both groups showed significant reductions in affect dysregulation, anger, and IPV. F4C fathers showed significantly greater decreases in affect dysregulation problems. There were no significant differences between groups on IPV but men who received F4C may have been less likely to use substances after leaving residential treatment. Integration of fatherhood focused interventions were possible and welcomed by residents at the facilities. F4C showed some benefit over DNK in terms of affect dysregulation symptoms and substance use relapse.

Drug abuse and responsible fathering: a comparative study of men enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment.

AIM: Because very little is known about the parenting of drug-abusing men, this study was designed to document ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS: Generalized linear models and data representing different dimensions of responsible fathering were used to clarify ways that the fathering of 106 men receiving methadone maintenance treatment differed from that of 118 men living in the same community with no history of alcohol or drug abuse. MEASUREMENT: Men who enrolled in the study completed two structured interviews and a battery of five self-report measures selected to document current and historical dimensions of responsible fathering. FINDINGS: When the opioid-dependent fathers were compared to the other fathers, there were significant differences in: (i) economic resources to support family formation; (ii) patterns of pair-bonding; (iii) patterns of procreation; and (iv) parenting behavior. When fathering of the youngest biological child was examined, the opioid-dependent fathers confirmed few differences in historical dimensions of fathering, but they reported significant differences in current dimensions reflecting: (i) constricted personal definitions of the fathering role; (ii) poorer relationships with biological mothers; (iii) less frequent residence with the child; (iv) less frequent provision of financial support; (v) less involvement in positive parenting; (vi) poorer appraisal of self as a father; and (vii) less satisfaction as a father. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering, and they raise questions about ways that the drug abuse treatment system might better address parenting as a treatment issue for men.

Does improvement in maternal attachment representations predict greater maternal sensitivity, child attachment security and lower rates of relapse to substance use? A second test of Mothering from the Inside Out treatment mechanisms.

In this study, we replicated a rigorous test of the proposed mechanisms of change associated with Mothering from the Inside out (MIO), an evidence-based parenting therapy that aims to enhance maternal reflective functioning and mental representations of caregiving in mothers enrolled in addiction treatment and caring for young children. First, using data from 84 mothers who enrolled in our second randomized controlled trial, we examined whether therapist fidelity to core MIO treatment components predicted improvement in maternal reflective functioning and mental representations of caregiving, even after taking fidelity to non-MIO components into account. Next, we examined whether improvement in directly targeted outcomes (e.g., maternal mentalizing and mental representations of caregiving) led to improvements in the indirectly targeted outcome of maternal caregiving sensitivity, even after controlling for other plausible competing mechanisms (e.g., improvement in maternal psychiatric distress and substance use). Third, we examined whether improvement in targeted parenting outcomes (e.g., maternal mentalizing, mental representations of caregiving and caregiving sensitivity) was associated in improvement in child attachment status, even after controlling for competing mechanisms (e.g., improvement in maternal psychiatric distress and substance use). Finally, we examined whether improvement in maternal mentalizing and caregiving representations was associated with a reduction in relapse to substance use. Support was found for the first three tests of mechanisms but not the fourth. Implications for future research and intervention development are discussed.