Exploring the Relationships between Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Youth Synthetic Cannabinoid Use.

Purpose: Existing studies have identified sexual minorities as being at enhanced risk for reporting synthetic cannabinoid (SC) use. It is unclear whether this association is the result of those that identify as a minority due to sexual orientation being more likely to use SCs, due to those that identify as transgender using SCs more, or both. Deconstructing this relationship will allow for targeted clinical advice and public health campaigns. Methods: Data from the 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Study are utilized. In total, 31,279 youth were asked about their gender identity, sexual orientation, and SC use history. Bivariate analyses and logistic regression models were completed to explore relevant associations. Results: Identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or questioning was linked to SC use and continuing SC use. Similarly, identifying as transgender was linked to SC use and continuing use. Regression analyses showed no significant interactive effect; identifying as both LGBQ and transgender does not have a compounding effect on use likelihood. Conclusions: Both sexual orientation and gender identity contribute to the relationship between sexual minority status and SC use noted in extant literature. This relationship is hypothesized to be tied to increased exposure to discrimination, victimization, and social isolation. Thus, efforts to directly counsel LGBTQ patients about the dangers associated with SC use are warranted as well as social policy reforms to better protect and support members of the LGBTQ community.

An Examination of Substance Use Disorder Type, Legal Status of Drug, and Treatment Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: From the anti-tobacco and anti-marijuana campaigns of the twentieth century to the current controversies surrounding vaporizer use and the opioid epidemic, substances and substance use have been at the forefront of cultural, public health, and legal debates for decades. This work explores treatment outcomes among those with substance use disorders (SUD) by 1) comparing legal, semi-legal, and illegal drug types and their impact on treatment outcomes and 2) evaluating the extent that there exist discrepancies between those who need and those who receive treatment. Methods: Binary logistic regression models were employed with data from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) to examine the relationship between type of SUD and treatment outcomes. Results: Results indicate that those with SUD to illegal drugs were generally more likely to report a need and receive treatment than those with SUD to a legal drug (alcohol use disorder). Those with SUD to some types of illegal drugs did not report more need, but in some cases reported more treatment. Additionally, analyses indicated that across treatment outcomes, those with marijuana use disorder (semi-legal drug) were less likely to report needing or receiving treatment than those with alcohol use disorder. Conclusions: This research examined the role of drugs' legal status and type of SUD in need for treatment and treatment received. The discrepancy between needing and receiving treatment suggests those with some types of SUDs may be pushed into treatment at higher rates based on the stigma surrounding the substance they use.

The Association Between Social Media Use and Hazardous Alcohol Use Among Youths: A Four-Country Study.

AIMS: To examine the continuing role of daily popular social media use in youth hazardous alcohol consumption in four countries across continents. METHODS: A web-based survey was given to youths aged 15-25 in the USA (n = 1212), South Korea (n = 1192), Finland (n = 1200) and Spain (n = 1212). Hazardous alcohol use (alcohol use disorders identification test-C) was the dependent variable. Main independent variables measured daily use of different social media services. Controls included compulsive Internet use, offline belonging, psychological distress, impulsivity, risk-taking, age and gender. Linear regression models and mediation analyses with bootstrapping were done for each country. RESULTS: Daily use of Facebook and Instagram was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in Finland, South Korea and Spain. Daily instant messaging was related to higher hazardous alcohol use among South Korean and Finnish youths. Daily YouTube use was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in South Korea, but lower hazardous alcohol use among youths in the USA and Finland. Daily Twitter use was related to lower hazardous drinking among youths in Finland but higher hazardous drinking among youths in Spain. The mediation analyses revealed that uploading pictures to social media is a possible facilitator of social media-related hazardous alcohol use among youths in the USA and Spain. CONCLUSION: Certain social media platforms might inspire and/or attract hazardously drinking youths, contributing to the growing opportunities for social media interventions.

How Strong is the "Fake ID Effect?" An Examination Using Propensity Score Matching in Two Samples.

BACKGROUND: Underage college students who obtain and use false identification (fake ID) are at risk for negative outcomes. However, it is currently unclear how uniquely the fake ID itself serves as a vehicle to subsequent harm (i.e., the "fake ID effect") over and above general and trait-related risk factors (e.g., deviant peers, low self-control). METHODS: To investigate whether the "fake ID effect" would hold after accounting for phenotypic risk, we utilized propensity score matching (PSM) in a cross-sectional sample of 1,454 students, and a longitudinal replication sample of 3,720 undergraduates. Individuals with a fake ID were matched with individuals without a fake ID, in terms of a number of trait-based and social risk factors. These matched groups were then compared on 5 problematic outcomes (i.e., frequent binge drinking, alcohol-related problems, arrests, marijuana use, and hard drug use). RESULTS: Findings showed that "fake ID effects" were substantially-although not fully-diminished following PSM. The "fake ID effect" remained strongest for alcohol-related arrests. This may relate to issues of enforcement and students' willingness to engage in deviant behavior with a fake ID, or it may be a function of combined processes. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the findings suggest that interventions should not only be aimed at reducing the fake ID-related alcohol access specifically, but should also be aimed more generally toward at-risk youths' access to alcohol. Future research might examine whether fake IDs have their strongest potency as moderators of the effects of risky traits-such as impulsiveness-on drinking outcomes.

Exploring Butane Hash Oil Use: A Research Note.

The practice of "dabbing" has seen an apparent upswing in popularity in recent months within American drug subcultures. "Dabbing" refers to the use of butane-extracted marijuana products that offer users much higher tetrahydrocannabinol content than flower cannabis through a single dosage process. Though considerably more potent than most marijuana strains in their traditional form, these butane hash oil products and the practice of dabbing are underexplored in the empirical literature, especially in prohibition states. A mixed-methods evaluation of a federally funded treatment program for drug-involved offenders identified a small sample (n = 6) of butane hash oil users and generated focus group interview data on the nature of butane hash oil, the practice of dabbing, and its effects. Findings inform discussion of additional research needed on butane hash oil and its implications for the ongoing marijuana legalization debate, including the diversity of users, routes of administration, and differences between retail/medical and prohibition states.

Misperceptions of peer pill-popping: the prevalence, correlates, and effects of inaccurate assumptions about peer pharmaceutical misuse.

Peer behaviors may significantly influence personal behavior yet individuals may not accurately estimate their peers' actions. Overestimations of peer substance use may encourage initiation or exacerbate extant problems. The present study examines misperceptions of peer pharmaceutical misuse and explores the relationship between reported misuse and perceptions of misuse for four categories of prescription drugs. Data collected from 2,349 college students in the Southeastern United States were analyzed and results indicated that overall perceptions of misuse were significantly higher than actual misuse. These findings suggest that intervention efforts may benefit from addressing misperceptions of pharmaceutical misuse. Study limitations and implications are addressed.

Not-so-clean fun: a profile of bath salt users among a college sample in the United States.

This research examines the characteristics of users of synthetic stimulants marketed as "bath salts." Synthetic stimulants such as MDPV (3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone), Mephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone), and Methylone (3,4-Methylenedioxymethcathinone) are often contained in products sold at convenience stores and over the Internet in the United States. Despite the recent legal action banning these types of synthetic stimulants, little is known about the characteristics of the users of these substances. This research provides a profile of bath salt users in the United States among an emerging adult population. A self-report survey instrument was administered to 2,349 students at a large university in the southeastern United States. Respondents indicated whether they had used synthetic stimulants and reported demographic characteristics. Results indicated that users of bath salts were more likely to be male, Hispanic or Native American, student athletes, employed, identify as a members of the LGBT community, and users of other substances.

Scoping Literature Review of Disease Modeling of the Opioid Crisis.

Opioid misuse continues to cause significant harm. To investigate current research, we conducted a scoping literature review of disease spread models of opioid misuse from January 2000 to December 2022. In total, 85 studies were identified and examined for the opioids modeled, model type, data sources used and model calibration and validation. Most of the studies (58%, 49) only modeled heroin; the next largest categories were prescription opioids and unspecified opioids which accounted for 9% (8) each. Most models were theoretical compartmental models (57) or applied compartmental models (21). Previously published research was the most used data source (38), and a majority of the model validation involved the researchers setting initial conditions to verify theoretical results (30). To represent typical opioid use more accurately, multiple opioids need to be incorporated into the disease spread models, and applying different modeling techniques may allow other insights into opioid misuse spread.

Examining the measurement of novel drug perceptions: Salvia divinorum, gender, and peer substance use.

Researchers commonly use a person's perception of the drug use of friends to determine the impact that peers exert on one's own behavior. Recently, there has been concern over this measure's validity. Novel drugs, which are either newly discovered drugs or existing substances only recently used for recreational purposes, may be used so infrequently that people have too few observable opportunities to accurately develop perceptions of their peer's use. Employing survey data collected in 2009 from 2,154 individuals within friendship pairs in the Southeast United States, we explore how gender affects perceptions of the infrequently used, novel drug Salvia divinorum. The study's limitations are noted.

Binge drinking, marijuana use, and friendships: the relationship between similar and dissimilar usage and friendship quality.

While it is commonly understood that the substance use of peers influences an individual's substance use, much less is understood about the interplay between substance use and friendship quality. Using a sample of 2,148 emerging adults nested within 1,074 dyadic friendships, this study separately investigates how concordance and discordance in binge drinking and marijuana use between friends is related to each friend's perceptions of friendship quality. Because "friendship quality" is a complex construct, we employ a measure containing five sub-elements--companionship, a lack of conflict, willingness to help a friend, relationship security, and closeness. Results for both binge drinking and marijuana use reveal that individuals in friendship pairs who are concordant in their substance use perceive significantly higher perceptions of friendship quality than individuals in dyads who are dissimilar in substance use. Specifically, concordant binge drinkers estimate significantly higher levels of companionship, relationship security, and willingness to help their friend than concordant non-users, discordant users, and discordant non-users. However, the highest amount of conflict in friendships is found when both friends engage in binge drinking and marijuana use. Several interpretations of these findings are discussed. Overall, concordance between friends' binge drinking and marijuana use appears to help some elements of friendship quality and harm others.

Sexual Orientation and Synthetic Cannabinoid Use: Examining the Role of Bullying Victimization.

Bullying is a common experience among youths with many adverse consequences. Research indicates that those who identify as lesbian, gay, and bisexual experience bullying at greater levels than heterosexuals. Studies also indicate that sexual minorities are more likely to use alcohol and other drugs, including synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). This paper examines whether the relationship between sexual minority status and SC use is mediated by differential exposure to bullying victimization. Data from the 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Study were used. Participants include 30,389 adolescents. Supplemental analyses were conducted with state and district data as those collection efforts incorporated additional bullying measures. Ianobucci's zmediation was used to assess the relationships between sexual orientation, bullying victimization, and SC use. Results confirm the higher prevalence of bullying and SC use among LGBQ students. Multiple forms of bullying victimization (e.g., in-person, online, because of weight/appearance) mediate the relationship between sexual orientation and SC use. The greater prevalence of SC use within the LGBQ population is partially attributed to coping as a result bullying victimization.

Examining Sanction Type and Drug Offender Recidivism: A Register-Based Study in Finland.

Nordic countries incarcerate offenders at much lower rates in comparison with incarceration rates in the United States, and reincarcerate fewer people per capita. Noncustodial alternatives to sanctions, including fines and community service, are used extensively in Finland to reduce negative effects of institutionalization and subsequent disadvantage caused by incarceration. The nature of drug-involved offenders within the Finnish system is reviewed in light of current research about the effectiveness of incarceration and deterrence-based approaches for drug offenders. Employing a 2014 sample from register data (consisting of official government records) of drug offenders in Finland with a 3-year recidivism period, this study utilizes a genetic matching procedure to compare offenders who received fines, conditional sentences (probation), or incarceration. While recognizing that numerous confounding variables affect incarceration, we compare a matched sample of drug offenders and the sanctions they have received from the Finland judicial system to determine whether offenders who initially receive a fine or a conditional sentence reenter the correctional system at different rates than those who are incarcerated. After matching, results found no significant differences between offenders receiving incarceration sentences or those who received noncustodial sentences (fine, or conditional sentence) for general and drug-related recidivism. These results are presented within the context of the Finnish corrections system in order to inform the criminal justice community about culture, incarceration, and process differences that could positively affect working with drug offenders in other localities.

Online Peers and Offline Highs: An Examination of Online Peer Groups, Social Media Homophily, and Substance Use.

Research indicates that youths are particularly susceptible to peer influence and that identifying with substance using peer groups predicts substance use. Today, youth spend more time interacting with distal peer groups via the Internet and have increased access to online drug cultures. Theoretically, this should have important implications for substance use. This study employs a nationally representative sample of U.S. youth (n = 1212), ages 15-25 years old, to examine whether online peer group identification and social media homophily predict substance use. Results indicate that online belonging and social media homophily are associated with some forms of substance use. While these factors were not significantly associated with regular marijuana or alcohol use among those who had initiated use, they predicted regular stimulant and opioid use among substance users. This suggests that online peer groups may promote progression into more problematic forms of substance use. Additional analyses of adolescent and young adult subgroups revealed important similarities and differences among the groups. The findings imply several directions for future research, and suggest that prevention policies and programs should continue to consider the role of online peers, and the Internet generally, in substance use initiation, escalation, and prevention.

Police Stress, Mental Health, and Resiliency during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic created social upheaval and altered norms for all members of society, but its effects on first responders have been particularly profound. Law enforcement officers have been expected to coordinate local shutdowns, encourage social distancing, and enforce stay-at-home mandates all while completing the responsibilities for which they are already understaffed and underfunded. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on officer stress, mental health, resiliency, and misconduct is explored drawing insight from reactions to the HIV epidemic over two decades earlier and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. COVID-19 policing is hypothesized to serve as a significant stressor for officers and compound the general and organizational stress associated with the occupation. Avenues for providing officer support are discussed and recommendations for research into the phenomenon presented.

Situational and Individual Risk Factors for Cybercrime Victimization in a Cross-national Context.

Routine Activity Theory (RAT) and the general theory of crime have been widely employed to understand cybercrime victimization. However, there is a need to integrate these theoretical frameworks to better understand victimization from a cross-national perspective. A web-based survey was conducted among participants aged 15 to 25 years from the U.S., Finland, Spain, and South Korea. Factors related to RAT were associated with increased victimization in all four countries although results varied between the countries. Low self-control was associated with victimization in the U.S., Finland, and Spain but not in South Korea. Using decomposition analysis, we discovered that the association between low self-control and victimization occurred both directly and indirectly through measures of RAT. Our study demonstrates the need to integrate theories to better understand the dynamics of victimization. Despite the usefulness of RAT, other theories should be taken into consideration when investigating cybercrime victimization.

The "Other Side of The Fence": A Learning- And Control-Based Investigation Of The Relationship Between Deviance And Friendship Quality.

Utilizing frameworks of social control and differential association theories, this study addresses the extent to which deviance (a predictor) is related to friendship quality (the outcome). Using dyadic data, results demonstrate that the highest estimates of friendship quality come from actors who have non-deviant friends and who also refrain from theft and violence themselves. Shared deviance within the friendship, referred to as 'homophily,' harms friendship quality, although it does not mediate or moderate the deviance - friendship quality link. Overall, deviance relates to friendship quality in a way that supports a bonding tradition more than a learning tradition.

Responding to substance-use-related probation and parole violations: are enhanced treatment sanctions preferable to jail sanctions?

An increase in correctional treatment programming options coupled with prison population reduction legislation has driven a widespread transfer of supervision from prisons to community corrections. As a result, medium-to-high risk offenders with substance use needs are increasingly managed through community-based supervision programs such as intensive supervision probation (ISP). ISP programs frequently rely on different types of graduated sanctions to encourage program completion. To further develop research on how graduated sanctions should be applied in response to substance-use-related violations, this study examines whether enhanced treatment sanctions (a rehabilitative approach) and jail sanctions (a punitive approach) may differentially impact successful ISP completion. Using a sample of persons who committed a substance use violation while on ISP, results from multilevel models demonstrate that enhanced treatment sanctions are significantly associated with increased odds of successful ISP completion. On the other hand, jail is not significant, and enhanced treatment and jail do not interact to influence ISP program success. Due to the deleterious nature of the jail environment, findings call into question the utility of jail sanctions on ISP outcomes. Overall, enhanced treatment may be a preferable means through which to sanction probationers and parolees who commit substance-use-related violations while under community supervision.

Legally high? Legal considerations of Salvia divinorum.

The legal status of the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum has been rapidly changing. Legal prohibitions on this plant native to Oaxaca, Mexico have emerged at the state level, a phenomenon that has not occurred since the passage of the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Included will be a brief description of the plant that has only recently crept into the popular American consciousness, and a review of the different legal mechanisms through which states have controlled the plant and the pending legislation proposing controls. Lastly, the implications of various state laws are discussed.

Exploring synthetic heroin: Accounts of acetyl fentanyl use from a sample of dually diagnosed drug offenders.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: Acetyl fentanyl, a fentanyl analogue emerging onto the recreational drug scene, has been responsible for numerous recent fatal overdoses in the USA, Europe and Russia. Studies reporting acetyl fentanyl use are presently limited to case studies and mortality reports. This study explores the nature of acetyl fentanyl use through the collection of first-hand qualitative data from users to inform public health and drug control policy responses. DESIGN AND METHODS: A series of focus group interviews within a correctional setting-Delaware County (Ohio) Jail, USA. Participants were 102 individuals in one of two US Bureau of Justice Assistance Second Chance Act substance use treatment initiatives participating in at least one focus group session. Five of these individuals reported acetyl fentanyl use. Semi-structured qualitative focus group sessions queried subjects' drugs of choice and nature of drug use. Responses were explored through follow-up organic discourse. RESULTS: Acetyl fentanyl users were generally unaware that they had administered the substance until after use (initially believing that they were administering heroin). They described the effects of acetyl fentanyl as stronger and qualitatively different from heroin. These individuals showed no interest in using acetyl fentanyl again describing it as unpleasant and more risky, both because of potency and the threat of a 'bad batch'. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Acetyl fentanyl is reaching heroin users, some of which administer it unknowingly. Regulation of acetyl fentanyl is recommended in all countries as is increasing public awareness that the substance is distinct from and being sold as heroin. [Miller JM, Stogner JM, Miller BL, Blough S. Exploring synthetic heroin: Accounts of acetyl fentanyl use from a sample of dually diagnosed drug offenders. Drug Alcohol Rev 2018;37:121-127].