Griffithsin tandemers: flexible and potent lectin inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus.

BACKGROUND: The lectin griffithsin (GRFT) is a potent antiviral agent capable of prevention and treatment of infections caused by a number of enveloped viruses and is currently under development as an anti-HIV microbicide. In addition to its broad antiviral activity, GRFT is stable at high temperature and at a broad pH range, displays little toxicity and immunogenicity, and is amenable to large-scale manufacturing. Native GRFT is a domain-swapped homodimer that binds to viral envelope glycoproteins and has displayed mid-picomolar activity in cell-based anti-HIV assays. Previously, we have engineered and analyzed several monomeric forms of this lectin (mGRFT) with anti-HIV EC50 values ranging up to 323 nM. Based on our previous analysis of mGRFT, we hypothesized that the orientation and spacing of the carbohydrate binding domains GRFT were key to its antiviral activity. RESULTS: Here we present data on engineered tandem repeats of mGRFT (mGRFT tandemers) with antiviral activity at concentrations as low as one picomolar in whole-cell anti-HIV assays. mGRFT tandemers were analyzed thermodynamically, both individually and in complex with HIV-1 gp120. We also demonstrate by dynamic light scattering and cryo-electron microscopy that mGRFT tandemers do not aggregate HIV virions. This establishes that, although the intra-virion crosslinking of HIV envelope glycoproteins is likely integral to their activity, the antiviral activity of these lectins is not due to virus aggregation caused by inter-virion crosslinking. CONCLUSIONS: The engineered tandemer constructs of mGRFT may provide novel and powerful agents for prevention of infection by HIV and other enveloped viruses.

B-DNA structure is intrinsically polymorphic: even at the level of base pair positions.

Increasingly exact measurement of single crystal X-ray diffraction data offers detailed characterization of DNA conformation, hydration and electrostatics. However, instead of providing a more clear and unambiguous image of DNA, highly accurate diffraction data reveal polymorphism of the DNA atomic positions and conformation and hydration. Here we describe an accurate X-ray structure of B-DNA, painstakingly fit to a multistate model that contains multiple competing positions of most of the backbone and of entire base pairs. Two of ten base-pairs of CCAGGCCTGG are in multiple states distinguished primarily by differences in slide. Similarly, all the surrounding ions are seen to fractionally occupy discrete competing and overlapping sites. And finally, the vast majority of water molecules show strong evidence of multiple competing sites. Conventional resolution appears to give a false sense of homogeneity in conformation and interactions of DNA. In addition, conventional resolution yields an average structure that is not accurate, in that it is different from any of the multiple discrete structures observed at high resolution. Because base pair positional heterogeneity has not always been incorporated into model-building, even some high and ultrahigh-resolution structures of DNA do not indicate the full extent of conformational polymorphism.

The phosphate clamp: a small and independent motif for nucleic acid backbone recognition.

The 1.7 Å X-ray crystal structure of the B-DNA dodecamer, [d(CGCGAATTCGCG)]2 (DDD)-bound non-covalently to a platinum(II) complex, [{Pt(NH3)3}2-µ-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}](NO3)6 (1, TriplatinNC-A,) shows the trinuclear cation extended along the phosphate backbone and bridging the minor groove. The square planar tetra-am(m)ine Pt(II) units form bidentate N-O-N complexes with OP atoms, in a Phosphate Clamp motif. The geometry is conserved and the interaction prefers O2P over O1P atoms (frequency of interaction is O2P > O1P, base and sugar oxygens > N). The binding mode is very similar to that reported for the DDD and [{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6(NH3(+))}2-µ-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}](NO3)8 (3, TriplatinNC), which exhibits in vivo anti-tumour activity. In the present case, only three sets of Phosphate Clamps were found because one of the three Pt(II) coordination spheres was not clearly observed and was characterized as a bare Pt²(+) ion. Based on the electron density, the relative occupancy of DDD and the sum of three Pt(II) atoms in the DDD-1 complex was 1:1.69, whereas the ratio for DDD-2 was 1:2.85, almost the mixing ratio in the crystallization drop. The high repetition and geometric regularity of the motif suggests that it can be developed as a modular nucleic acid binding device with general utility.

Atomic-resolution crystal structure of the antiviral lectin scytovirin.

The crystal structures of the natural and recombinant antiviral lectin scytovirin (SVN) were solved by single-wavelength anomalous scattering and refined with data extending to 1.3 A and 1.0 A resolution, respectively. A molecule of SVN consists of a single chain 95 amino acids long, with an almost perfect sequence repeat that creates two very similar domains (RMS deviation 0.25 A for 40 pairs of Calpha atoms). The crystal structure differs significantly from a previously published NMR structure of the same protein, with the RMS deviations calculated separately for the N- and C-terminal domains of 5.3 A and 3.7 A, respectively, and a very different relationship between the two domains. In addition, the disulfide bonding pattern of the crystal structures differs from that described in the previously published mass spectrometry and NMR studies.

Application of anomalous diffraction methods to the study of DNA and DNA-complexes.

Anomalous scattering is commonly used to solve X-ray structures. As discussed here, anomalous scattering is also useful for characterizing complex systems with mixed and partial occupancies, where true electron density is represented by unresolvable ensemble averages. The solvent environment surrounding nucleic acids is an example of such a system, as are some DNA-ligand systems. The atomic number and wavelength dependencies of anomalous scattering allow one to filter out the electron densities of C, N, and O, and to cleanly visualize the electron densities of heavier atoms. Therefore, anomalous scattering can make beacons of selected atoms. In addition, anomalous scattering provides a model-independent method for determining atomic identities. Here, we describe applications of anomalous scattering to the structure determination of DNA-platinum complexes and in cation associations of free DNA, of DNA-anthracycline complexes, of chemically modified DNA, and of DNA-protein complexes. The utility of Rb(+) and Tl(+) as K(+) substitutes is supported by similarities in Rb(+) and Tl(+) association with DNA.

Monomerization of viral entry inhibitor griffithsin elucidates the relationship between multivalent binding to carbohydrates and anti-HIV activity.

Mutations were introduced to the domain-swapped homodimer of the antiviral lectin griffithsin (GRFT). Whereas several single and double mutants remained dimeric, insertion of either two or four amino acids at the dimerization interface resulted in a monomeric form of the protein (mGRFT). Monomeric character of the modified proteins was confirmed by sedimentation equilibrium ultracentrifugation and by their high resolution X-ray crystal structures, whereas their binding to carbohydrates was assessed by isothermal titration calorimetry. Cell-based antiviral activity assays utilizing different variants of mGRFT indicated that the monomeric form of the lectin had greatly reduced activity against HIV-1, suggesting that the antiviral activity of GRFT stems from crosslinking and aggregation of viral particles via multivalent interactions between GRFT and oligosaccharides present on HIV envelope glycoproteins. Atomic resolution crystal structure of a complex between mGRFT and nonamannoside revealed that a single mGRFT molecule binds to two different nonamannoside molecules through all three carbohydrate-binding sites present on the monomer.

Topology of the disulfide bonds in the antiviral lectin scytovirin.

The antiviral lectin scytovirin (SVN) contains a total of five disulfide bonds in two structurally similar domains. Previous reports provided contradictory results on the disulfide pairing in each individual domain, and we have now re-examined the disulfide topology. N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry were used to analyze proteolytic fragments of native SVN obtained at acidic pH, yielding the assignment as Cys7-Cys55, Cys20-Cys32, Cys26-Cys38, Cys68-Cys80, and Cys74-Cys86. We also analyzed the N-terminal domain of SVN (SD1, residues 1-48) prepared by expression/oxidative folding of the recombinant protein and by chemical synthesis. The disulfide pairing in the chemically synthesized SD1 was forced into predetermined topologies: SD1A (Cys20-Cys26, Cys32-Cys38) or SD1B (Cys20-Cys32, Cys26-Cys38). The topology of native SVN was found to be in agreement with the SD1B and the one determined for the recombinant SD1 domain. Although the two synthetic forms of SD1 were distinct when subjected to chromatography, their antiviral properties were indistinguishable, having low nM activity against HIV. Tryptic fragments, the "cystine clusters" [Cys20-Cys32/Cys26-Cys38; SD1] and [Cys68-Cys80/Cys74-C-86; SD2], were found to undergo rapid disulfide interchange at pH 8. This interchange resulted in accumulation of artifactual fragments in alkaline pH digests that are structurally unrelated to the original topology, providing a rational explanation for the differences between the topology reported herein and the one reported earlier (Bokesh et al., Biochemistry 2003;42:2578-2584). Our observations emphasize the fact that proteins such as SVN, with disulfide bonds in close proximity, require considerable precautions when being fragmented for the purpose of disulfide assignment.

Structural and functional analyses of minimal phosphopeptides targeting the polo-box domain of polo-like kinase 1.

Polo-like kinase-1 (Plk1) has a pivotal role in cell proliferation and is considered a potential target for anticancer therapy. The noncatalytic polo-box domain (PBD) of Plk1 forms a phosphoepitope binding module for protein-protein interaction. Here, we report the identification of minimal phosphopeptides that specifically interact with the PBD of human PLK1, but not those of the closely related PLK2 and PLK3. Comparative binding studies and analyses of crystal structures of the PLK1 PBD in complex with the minimal phosphopeptides revealed that the C-terminal SpT dipeptide functions as a high-affinity anchor, whereas the N-terminal residues are crucial for providing specificity and affinity to the interaction. Inhibition of the PLK1 PBD by phosphothreonine mimetic peptides was sufficient to induce mitotic arrest and apoptotic cell death. The mode of interaction between the minimal peptide and PBD may provide a template for designing therapeutic agents that target PLK1.

A third mode of DNA binding: Phosphate clamps by a polynuclear platinum complex.

We describe a 1.2 A X-ray structure of a double-stranded B-DNA dodecamer (the Dickerson Dodecamer, DDD, [d(CGCGAATTCGCG)]2) associated with a cytotoxic platinum(II) complex, [{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6(NH3+)}2-mu-{trans-Pt(NH3)2(NH2(CH2)6NH2)2}] (TriplatinNC). TriplatinNC is a multifunctional DNA ligand, with three cationic Pt(II) centers, and directional hydrogen bonding functionalities, linked by flexible hydrophobic segments, but without the potential for covalent interaction. TriplatinNC does not intercalate nor does it bind in either groove. Instead, it binds to phosphate oxygen atoms and thus associates with the backbone. The three square-planar tetra-am(m)ine Pt(II) coordination units form bidentate N...O...N complexes with OP atoms, in a motif we call the Phosphate Clamp. The geometry is conserved among the 8 observed phosphate clamps in this structure. The interaction appears to prefer O2P over O1P atoms (frequency of interaction is O2P > O1P, base and sugar oxygens > N). The high repetition and geometric regularity of the motif suggests that this type of Pt(II) center can be developed as a modular nucleic acid binding device with general utility. TriplatinNC extends along the phosphate backbone, in a mode of binding we call "Backbone Tracking" and spans the minor groove in a mode of binding we call "Groove Spanning". Electrostatic forces appear to induce modest DNA bending into the major groove. This bending may be related to the direct coordination of a sodium cation by a DNA base, with unprecedented inner-shell (direct) coordination of penta-hydrated sodium at the O6 atom of a guanine.

Structure of B-DNA with cations tethered in the major groove.

Here, we describe the 1.6-A X-ray structure of the DDD (Dickerson-Drew dodecamer), which has been covalently modified by the tethering of four cationic charges. This modified version of the DDD, called here the DDD(4+), is composed of [d(CGCGAAXXCGCG)](2), where X is effectively a thymine residue linked at the 5 position to an n-propyl-amine. The structure was determined from crystals soaked with thallium(I), which has been broadly used as a mimic of K(+) in X-ray diffraction experiments aimed at determining positions of cations adjacent to nucleic acids. Three of the tethered cations are directed radially out from the DNA. The radially directed tethered cations do not appear to induce structural changes or to displace counterions. One of the tethered cations is directed in the 3' direction, toward a phosphate group near one end of the duplex. This tethered cation appears to interact electrostatically with the DNA. This interaction is accompanied by changes in helical parameters rise, roll, and twist and by a displacement of the backbone relative to a control oligonucleotide. In addition, these interactions appear to be associated with displacement of counterions from the major groove of the DNA.