Vertebroplasty: clinical experience and follow-up results.

This study was undertaken to report the clinical experience with percutaneous minimal invasive vertebroplasty using polymethyl-methacrylcate (PMMA) for a consecutive group of patients. Over the period of the last 4 years, 40 patients were treated at 68 vertebral segment levels with the intention to relieve pain related to vertebral body lesions. Reduced vertebral body height and destruction of the posterior vertebral wall were not considered to be exclusion criterias. The vertebroplasty procedure was performed under general anesthesia and in prone position with imaging control using mostly biplane DSA fluoroscopic guidance, and rarely with single-plane mobile DSA combined with computed tomographic guidance. Unilateral, but more frequently bilateral, transpedicular introduction of a 2-3-mm OD needle was followed by an injection of polymethyl-methacrylcate (PMMA). PMMA preparation involved a diluted mixture (20 mL powder for 5 mL liquid) allowing for an extended polymerization time of up to 8 min. The PMMA was mixed with metallic powder to enhance its radio-opacity. Before PMMA injection, a vertebral phlebography was obtained to evaluate the filling pattern and identify sites of potential PMMA leakage. Injection of opacified PMMA was performed under continuous visual control with fluoroscopy to obtain adequate filling and to avoid important PMMA leakage. Clinical follow-up involved an evaluation using a questionnaire for assessment of pain, pain medication, and mobility. One to six levels were treated in one to three treatment sessions for patients with metastatic, osteoporotic, and hemangiomatous lesions of the vertebral bodies who presented with pain. The results observed matched those reported previously with a success rate of approximately 80% and a complication rate below 6% per treated level. Treatment failure and complications observed were related to leakage, insufficient pretreatment evaluation, anesthesia, or patient position during treatment. Image guidance with fluoroscopy was efficient both for precise transpedicular approach and PMMA implantation control. Vertebroplasty is very efficient for treatment of pain. Treatment failure was mostly related to insufficient pretreatment clinical evaluation, and complication due to excessive PMMA volume injection. Control of PMMA volume seems to be the most critical point for avoiding complications. A good fluoroscopy control is therefore mandatory.

Pathology findings with acrylic implants.

We report the pathological findings in cases of acrylic implants obtained by direct intratumoral injection of polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) and N-butyl-cyano-acrylate (NBCA). Direct intratumoral injection of acrylic implants was performed for a variety of primary and secondary bone lesions. These types of treatments have been used at our institution in the last 4 years for 40 vertebroplasty (PMMA) procedures and for nine bone lesions of other locations (PMMA, NBCA). Postmortem histology became available for 1 case of PMMA and for 5 cases with NBCA intratumoral acrylic implants. The pathological findings associated with PMMA and NBCA were evaluated and compared. PMMA exhibited a macroscopic and microscopic rim of tumor necrosis, 6 months after implantation. NBCA exhibited compressive effects on the nearby tumor tissue, however, without signs of significant necrosis outside the acrylic tumor cast. Tumor captured inside the acrylic cast showed extensive to near complete necrosis. Acrylic implants may lead to necrosis when injected directly in tumors. The necrotizing effect may extend beyond the limits of an implant in the case of PMMA. Such an extended effect of PMMA, when compared with NBCA, may be due to the variable toxicity of acrylic implants, including the different degrees of the exothermic reaction during polymerization.

A case in favor of aneurysmographic studies: a perforating artery originating from the dome of a basilar tip aneurysm.

A posterior perforating artery originating from the dome of a basilar tip aneurysm is reported. The exact origin of this perforator was identified by selective aneurysmography only. This observation provides an argument favoring the consideration of aneurysmographic studies before treatment of large aneurysms located in proximity to areas of normal perforating arteries.

Angiographic anatomy of the laterocavernous sinus.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The laterocavernous sinus (LCS) has recently been recognized as one of the major drainage pathways of the superficial middle cerebral vein (SMCV). Our purpose was to investigate the drainage pattern of the SMCV, with special emphasis on the angiographic anatomy of the LCS. METHODS: The drainage pathways of the SMCV were evaluated prospectively on 100 selective carotid angiograms obtained in 65 consecutive patients. RESULTS: The SMCV was absent in 19% of cases. A classic termination into the cavernous sinus (CS) was found in 20%, a paracavernous sinus in 39%, and an LCS in 22%. The LCS drained toward the pterygoid plexus (27%), the superior petrosal sinus (18%), the posterior aspect of the CS (32%), or a combination of these pathways (23%). A complete absence of connection between the LCS and CS was observed in 63.5% of the patients. CONCLUSION: The LCS is a laterosellar venous space that is anatomically and angiographically distinct from the CS. Secondary small anastomoses between the LCS and CS may make it difficult to differentiate the two structures. Appreciation of the course and connection pattern of the LCS is important, particularly when planning an endovascular approach to treatment of lesions in the region of the CS.

In vitro models of intracranial arteriovenous fistulas for the evaluation of new endovascular treatment materials.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to create and test an in vitro model of intracranial arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) that simulates the geometry of human vasculature and allows realistic testing of devices used in endovascular therapy. METHODS: The models were derived from corrosion casts of the main cervicocranial arteries and veins obtained from two nonfixed human specimens. Wax copies of the casts were produced and combined to create complex models simulating various types of intracranial AVFs. Wax assemblies were embedded with liquid silicone solidified into transparent blocks containing, after wax evacuation, hollow reproductions of the original vascular trees. The models were connected to a pulsatile pump and their compatibility with various imaging techniques and endovascular treatment materials was evaluated. RESULTS: The models were compatible with digital subtraction angiography, CT, MR imaging, and transcranial Doppler sonography. They provided a realistic endovascular environment for the simulation of interventional neuroradiologic procedures. CONCLUSION: Anatomically accurate and reproducible in vitro models of intracranial AVFs provide a valuable method for evaluating new endovascular treatment materials and for teaching purposes.

Second-generation three-dimensional reconstruction for rotational three-dimensional angiography.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility and accuracy of three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction techniques for digital subtraction angiography (DSA) in planning and evaluation of minimally invasive image-controlled therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using a standard, commercially available system, the authors acquired DSA images and corrected them for inherent distortions. They designed and implemented parallel and multiresolution versions of cone-beam reconstruction techniques to reconstruct high-resolution targeted volumes in a short period of time. Testing was performed on anatomically correct, calibrated in vitro models of a cerebral aneurysm. These models were used with a pulsatile circulation circuit to allow for blood flow simulation during DSA, computed tomographic (CT) angiography, and magnetic resonance (MR) angiography image acquisitions. RESULTS: The multiresolution DSA-based reconstruction protocol and its implementation allowed the authors to achieve reconstruction times and levels of accuracy for the volume measurement of the aneurysmal cavities that were considered compatible with actual clinical practice. Comparison with data obtained from other imaging modalities shows that, besides vascular tree depiction, the DSA-based true 3D technique provides volume estimates at least as good as those obtained from CT and MR angiography. CONCLUSION: The authors demonstrated the feasibility and potential of true 3D reconstruction for angiographic imaging with DSA. On the basis of the model testing, this work addresses both the timing and quantification required to support minimally invasive image-controlled therapy.

In vitro evaluation of the effectiveness of distal protection in the prevention of cerebral thromboembolism during carotid stent placement.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate and quantify the benefit of the balloon protection device, to identify the most effective sequence of irrigation or flushing, and to determine the most effective catheter position to remove the maximum number of emboli or debris beneath the flow-arrest balloon. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Silicone models of the neurovasculature were attached to a systodiastolic pump. Stents were placed in carotid stenoses by using the distal flow protection technique. Embolic material was released within the stent. The effectiveness of different irrigation techniques was evaluated. RESULTS: Aspiration under the balloon through the guiding catheter with a 60-mL syringe followed by one power injection at 40 mL injected at 2 mL/sec will result in removal of about 98% of potential emboli from the internal carotid artery [corrected]. CONCLUSION: In vitro evaluation of the distal flow protection technique indicates that it should reduce stroke risk during carotid stent placement.

Preoperative silk suture embolization of cerebral and dural arteriovenous malformations.

OBJECT: The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of silk sutures as a medical implant when applied for the embolization of cerebral and dural arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). The facility of surgery and the clinical significance of complications related to preoperative silk suture embolization were evaluated immediately after surgery and at long-term follow up. METHODS: Thirty-four patients harboring 29 cerebral and five dural AVMs underwent embolization in which silk alone or in association with other agents was used. Medical and radiological records obtained in these 34 patients were reviewed retrospectively. The cerebral AVMs were classified according to the Spetzler-Martin grading system and the dural AVMs to the Djindjian grading system. The facility of the resection and the adverse outcomes, including new neurological deficits, hemorrhage, and fever, as well as histopathological evidence of vessel inflammatory changes, were determined in each case. In all 23 surgical cases, the AVM could be easily manipulated and excised. New temporary neurological deficits occurred in three patients. A high Spetzler-Martin grade was not associated with a higher incidence of new neurological deficits. One delayed-onset hemorrhage was detected after embolization. Fever was present in 24% of the patients. No sign of significant vasculitis or perivascular inflammation was found on radiological or histopathological examination. CONCLUSIONS: Silk sutures are safe embolic agents especially for proximal occlusion of AVM feeding vessels. New permanent neurological deficits were not encountered in this series. Fever was considered to be a minor, temporary side effect of silk suture embolization.

[Endovascular occlusion and percutaneous treatment of vasospasm]. / Occlusion endovasculaire et traitement du vasospasme par voie percutanée.

Current available minimal invasive endovascular technology allows for percutaneous treatment of cerebral aneurysms and of vasospasm, the associated disease fo cerebral arteries secondary to subarachnoid hemorrhage. Multicentric evaluation of standardized treatment techniques using platinum coils have shown that a high success rate is now obtained for certain forms of aneurysms, mostly those which have a small base (4 mm or less) of implantation of the vessel. Treatment of arterial vasospasm by techniques including angioplasty using soft silicon balloons, or intraarterial application of spasmolytics, or both may be very successful, when performed prior to establishment of irreversible ischemic damage to the brain tissue. An intensive patient monitoring during the posthemorrhagic period is therefore critical for the correct timing of such a procedures.

Termination of the inferior petrosal sinus: an anatomical variant.

Unusual caudal terminations of the inferior petrosal sinus (IPS) characterized by an extracranial extension joining the internal jugular vein up to 40 mm below the external skull base are reported. This variation was observed bilaterally on an anatomical specimen and unilaterally on four patients during diagnostic cerebral angiography. It may be considered an accessory internal jugular vein and, if present, may allow for an alternate endovascular access to the IPS.

Duplicated hepatic artery: radiologic and surgical implications.

Preoperative angiography of the coeliac trunk and superior mesenteric artery is routinely performed before liver resections and transplantations. For this purpose, it is usual to inject each branch of the coeliac trunk separately. Selective angiographic studies, however, may lead to overlooking surgically essential anatomic variations of the hepatic blood supply, as demonstrated by the present report. A case of a duplicated hepatic artery is presented, its radiologic and surgical implications discussed, and the relevant literature reviewed. This uncommon and particularly evocative feature illustrates the clinical importance of a sound knowledge of anatomical variants.

An in vitro anatomic model of the human cerebral arteries with saccular arterial aneurysms.

An in vitro model of the main human cerebral arteries with or without saccular arterial aneurysms is presented. A cast of the cerebral arteries was obtained in a human specimen. Three aneurysms were simulated and added to the cast. Wax copies of the cast were produced, and embedded with liquid resin solidifying into solid blocks. After evacuation of the wax, a model consisting of a hollow reproduction of the cast within the resin block was obtained. The model is reproducible and anatomically accurate. Since it is transparent to visible light, and compatible with x-ray, magnetic resonance and transcranial doppler techniques, it should prove useful for a wide range of haemodynamic and radiologic investigations. The reported technique may be adapted to any structure with a hollow configuration, allowing for the preparation of arterial and venous models from other vascular areas, as well as models from other anatomic systems, such as the biliary or urinary tracts.

CT angiography, MR angiography and rotational digital subtraction angiography for volumetric assessment of intracranial aneurysms. An experimental study.

The purpose of our experimental study was to assess the accuracy and precision of CT angiography (CTA), MR angiography (MRA) and rotational digital subtraction angiography (DSA) for measuring the volume of an in vitro aneurysm model. A rigid model of the anterior cerebral circulation harbouring an anterior communicating aneurysm was connected to a pulsatile circuit. It was studied using unenhanced 3D time-of-flight MRA, contrast-enhanced CTA and rotational DSA angiography. The source images were then postprocessed on dedicated workstations to calculate the volume of the aneurysm. CTA was more accurate than MRA (P=0.0019). Rotational DSA was more accurate than CTA, although the difference did not reach statistical significance (P=0.1605), and significantly more accurate than MRA (P<0.00001). CTA was more precise than MRA (P=0.12), although this did not reach statistical significance. Rotational DSA can be part of the diagnosis, treatment planning and support endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms. The emerging endovascular treatment techniques which consist of using liquid polymers as implants to exclude aneurysms from arterial circulation would certainly benefit from this precise measurement of the volume of aneurysms.

Anatomic relationship between arachnoid granulations in the transverse sinus and the termination of the vein of Labbé: an angiographic study.

We studied the anatomic relationship between arachnoid granulations in the transverse sinus and the termination of the vein of Labbé in 57 consecutive angiograms. Patients with pathology in intracranial venous structures or with inadequate image quality of the venous system were excluded. Arachnoid granulations were found in 12 of the 57 patients (21.1%), always at the junction of the vein of Labbé and the transverse sinus; the vein of Labbé was present in 55 patients (96.5%), most often without associated arachnoid granulations; the latter, however, were not observed in the absence of a vein of Labbé. This study confirms the close, constant anatomic relationship between arachnoid granulations in the transverse sinus and the termination of the vein of Labbé. This observation may help to differentiate arachnoid granulations from pathologic conditions involving the transverse sinus such as dural sinus thrombosis. The constant character of this relationship suggests a developmental role of afferent veins in the formation of arachnoid granulations.

Limited correlation between expansin gene expression and elongation growth rate.

The aim of this work was to study the role of the cell wall protein expansin in elongation growth. Expansins increase cell wall extensibility in vitro and are thought to be involved in cell elongation. Here, we studied the regulation of two tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum cv Moneymaker) expansin genes, LeExp2 and LeExp18, in rapidly expanding tissues. LeExp2 was strongly expressed in the elongation zone of hypocotyls and in the faster growing stem part during gravitropic stimulation. LeExp18 expression did not correlate with elongation growth. Exogenous application of hormones showed a substantial auxin-stimulation of LeExp2 mRNA in etiolated hypocotyls and a weaker auxin-stimulation of LeExp18 mRNA in stem tissue. Analysis of transcript accumulation revealed higher levels of LeExp2 and LeExp18 in light-treated, slow-growing tissue than in dark-treated, rapidly elongating tissue. Expansin protein levels and cell wall extension activities were similar in light- and dark-grown hypocotyl extracts. The results show a strong correlation between expansin gene expression and growth rate, but this correlation is not absolute. We conclude that elongation growth is likely to be controlled by expansin acting in concert with other factors that may limit growth under some physiological conditions.

Liver of the "visible man".

Endoscopic surgery, also called minimally invasive surgery, is presumed drastically to reduce postoperative morbidity and thus to offer both human and economic benefits. For the surgeon, however, this approach leads to a number of gestural challenges that require extensive training to be mastered. In order to replace experimentation on animals and patients, we developed a simulator for endoscopic surgery. To achieve this goal, a first step was to develop a working prototype, a "standard patient," on which the informatic and microengineering tools could be validated. We used the visible man dataset for this purpose. The external shape of the visible man's liver, his biliary passages, and his extrahepatic portal system turned out to be fully within the standard pattern of normal anatomy. Anatomic variations were observed in the intrahepatic right portal vein, the hepatic veins, and the arterial blood supply to the liver. Thus, the visible man dataset reveals itself to be well suited for the simulation of minimally invasive surgical operation such as endoscopic cholecystectomy.

Laterocavernous sinus.

Here we describe an anatomic structure that takes the form of a venous channel (VC) within the two layers of the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus (CS). Colored gelatin was injected in both superficial middle cerebral veins (SMCV) of 29 human specimens. When a SMCV terminated into the CS, the latter was dissected giving particular attention to its lateral wall. The termination of the VC and its eventual communications with the CS and adjacent venous structures were studied. A VC in the lateral wall of the CS was found in 14 of 58 lateral walls (24.1%). It was in continuation with the SMCV in 13 cases, with the uncal vein in one case. The VC drained into the superior petrosal sinus (71.4%), the pterygoid plexus (21.4%), or the posterior part of the CS (7.2%). Two alternate drainage pathways for the SMCV were observed, toward the anterosuperior aspect of the CS (13.8%) or through a paracavernous sinus located along the floor of the middle cranial fossa (32.8%). These different pathways were not observed to occur concomitantly. SMCV were absent in 29.3%. Despite its close topographic relation with the CS, the VC in the lateral wall can be considered as an anatomic entity with potential clinical relevance. We propose to call it the laterocavernous sinus.