Missed diagnosis and delayed laparotomy in blunt abdominal trauma.

Abdominal organ injuries caused by blunt trauma are notoriously difficult to diagnose and a vital operation may as a result be dangerously delayed. In a series of 331 patients admitted after blunt abdominal trauma, 426 abdominal organ injuries were registered. 152 of these patients had 199 abdominal organ injuries requiring surgical repair. In 31 of these patients (20%) with 44 organ injuries operation was delayed for more than 6 hours after admission, in most instances because the diagnosis had been missed. One of these patients died as a consequence. Hollow organ injuries were the most commonly missed. Peritoneal lavage, repeated if necessary, and diagnostic imaging must be used as valuable tools in addition to repeated clinical evaluation, especially in comatose patients, in patients with multiple injuries, and in intoxicated patients.

[Achalasia. Diagnosis and therapeutic effect evaluated by esophageal manometry]. / Achalasia. Diagnose og behandlingseffekt bedømt med oesophagusmanometri.

Achalasia was diagnosed in 57 patients from 1982 through 1991. 13 patients were evaluated by manometry both before and after pneumatic dilatation of the sphincter. There were no serious complications. All but one patient experienced good symptomatic effect; one patient was operated after two ineffective dilatations. The tonus and length of the lower oesophageal sphincter decreased significantly, but dilatation did not improve the swallow-induced relaxation of the sphincter, nor peristalsis in the oesophageal body. In three randomly selected patients, transcutaneous nervous stimulation did not have any symptomatic effects, nor did it affect the motility pattern of the oesophagus. Pneumatic dilatation of the lower oesophageal sphincter is a safe and effective first-choice treatment for achalasia, with myotomy being reserved for patients whose symptoms are not relieved successfully after two dilatations.

[Surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux. Evaluated by manometry and 24-hour pH monitoring of the esophagus]. / Kirurgisk behandling av gastroøsofageal refluks. Vurdert med manometri og 24 timers pH-måling i oesophagus.

From 1980 to 1989, 46 patients underwent surgery for pathological gastro-oesophageal reflux disease; 28 with Nissen technique, nine with Hill technique and nine with a modified Belsey technique. 11 patients (24%) experienced postoperative complications, 21% after Nissen, 33% after Hill and 22% after Belsey. Two of six patients suffered recurrence of their reflux symptoms after Belsey, three of six after Hill and two of 26 (8%) after Nissen. 85% experienced no reflux symptoms after Nissen fundoplication. 17 patients suffered from flatulence, three were not able to belch and two were not able to vomit. Median lower oesophageal sphincter pressure before Nissen fundoplication was 6.0 mmHg and length was 2.0 cm. After the operation the pressure increased to 10.0 mmHg and the length to 3.0 cm. Four patients underwent ambulatory 24-h oesophageal pH monitoring both preoperatively and postoperatively. The preoperative registration was pathological in all patients, but in three patients the postoperative pH was normal.

The effect of ranitidine on oesophageal motility.

Ranitidine is used to treat symptomatic oesophageal reflux; its effect is probably to a great extent due to reduced gastric secretion. Whether it also affects oesophageal motility is a matter of controversy. In a randomized double-blind study oesophageal motility was recorded in 21 healthy individuals after 3 doses of 150 mg ranitidine or placebo given over 36 h. Ranitidine increased the pressure in the lower oesophageal sphincter from 14 to 18 mmHg (p = 0.05) but otherwise did not influence oesophageal motility.

[Surgical treatment of pancreatic injuries]. / Kirurgisk behandling av pankreasskader.

Major pancreatic traumas are not frequent, and diagnosis often difficult. In a retrospective study we found 11 verified cases of pancreatic trauma treated in the period 1977-86. Three were penetrating and eight blunt trauma victims. Five patients suffered serious lesions in other organs. Laparotomy was performed in nine patients. One patient died, due to other lesions. The patients can be separated clinically into two groups. In the first group emergency laparotomy is indicated because of bleeding or peritonitis, most often due to lesions in other abdominal organs. In the other group the initial symptoms and clinical signs are sparse, and the diagnosis is based on repeated clinical examinations, ultrasound CT, peritoneal lavage and repeated amylase determinations. Contusions and minor lacerations without injury to the duct are treated with revision and canalization. Resection and pancreatico-jejunostomy should be considered when the pancreas is heavily lacerated with damage to the duct system.

[Duodenal injuries due to blunt trauma]. / Duodenalskade etter stumpt traume.

UNLABELLED: During the last ten years we have seen fourteen patients with duodenal injury after blunt trauma. Five patients with intramural hematomas received no treatment. Nine patients had a perforated duodenal wall, and in four of these the diagnosis was delayed for more than 24 hours. Revision and primary suture were carried out in seven patients, with no complications. In one patient, where the diagnosis was delayed for three days, the perforation was closed around a Pezzer catheter for external drainage. She developed an intraabdominal abscess which required reoperation. One patient died from liver injury with profuse bleeding; the others survived without sequelae from the duodenal injury. CONCLUSIONS: Duodenal injuries are rare and early diagnosis is difficult. We think that frequently repeated physical examinations, liberal use of diagnostic peritoneal lavage, and careful peroperative exploration of the entire duodenum when performing laparotomy after abdominal injuries, are important for early diagnosis and treatment.

On the value of giving a combination of drugs for the treatment of endotoxaemia in pigs.

OBJECTIVE: To see if treatment with a combination of drugs each directed at a different mediator was successful in preventing activation of those mediators in experimental endotoxic shock. DESIGN: Controlled study. MATERIAL: 40 juvenile pigs. INTERVENTIONS: 33 animals received 0.01 mg/kg endotoxin infusion, the rest being given the same volume of saline; 10 of the 33 received no treatment. Of the remaining 23, 5 were given combination treatment with methylprednisolone, naloxone, ketanserin, promethazine, C1 esterase inhibitor, antithrombin III and aprotinin; 7 were given methylprednisolone only; 6 were given the three protease inhibitors (C1 esterase inhibitor, antithrombin III and aprotinin); and 5 were given naloxone, ketanserin and promethazine. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Assessment of haemodynamic, proteolytic, and cellular effects of endotoxaemia. RESULTS: Only the combination treatment totally blocked all the effects of the infusion of endotoxin. CONCLUSION: As endotoxin affects several mediators, combination treatment is necessary to block all its deleterious effects in pigs.

Hemodynamic and proteolytic effects of intravenous injection of purified human plasma kallikrein.

To investigate the precise hemodynamic effects of purified human plasma kallikrein, small doses (0.3 U/kg) of this proteolytic enzyme were infused over 10 s in five pigs. Hemodynamic performance was evaluated by means of a Swan-Ganz catheter, and parameters of the plasma kallikrein-kinin, coagulation, and fibrinolytic systems were determined by means of chromogenic peptide substrate assays. The infusions of plasma kallikrein were followed by rapid decreases in mean arterial pressure (to 43 +/- 2% of baseline values) and increases in cardiac output (to 145 +/- 6% of baseline values), accounting for marked decreases in systemic vascular resistance, to 28 +/- 1% of initial values. Heart rate, mean pulmonary arterial, central venous, and pulmonary capillary wedge pressures did not change after the injection. Pulmonary vascular resistance decreased to 69 +/- 3% of baseline values. The hemodynamic changes gradually normalized during the following 10 min. Functional levels of prekallikrein, kallikrein, kallikrein inhibition, prothrombin, antithrombin III, plasmin, and antiplasmin were not affected by the injection or the resulting hemodynamic changes; the hematocrit and the number of circulating leukocytes or platelets were also unaffected.

[Grading and prognosis of blunt abdominal injuries]. / Gradering og prognostikk ved stumpe abdominalskader.

From 1 January 1980 to 31 December 1987, 297 patients were admitted to Ullevål Hospital, Dept. of Surgery, with abdominal injury after blunt trauma. The Injury Severity Score (ISS) was determined in retrospect, and correlated to mortality, morbidity and use of resources. 50 patients (16.8%) died. Mortality increased with increasing ISS, until ISS was above 34. In this group, mortality was 75%. In the survivors, hospital costs (days in the hospital, in the intensive care unit, on mechanical respiration, and number of blood units transfused) increased with increasing ISS. The likelihood of developing septicaemia adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or multiple organ failure also increased with increasing ISS. Those who died were older and had a higher ISS than the survivors. In patients over 55 years old, the mortality increased significantly. The ISS is well suited for identification of seriously injured patients after blunt abdominal trauma. The ISS can be used to predict mortality, morbidity and cost of treatment in groups of patients.

[Diaphragmatic injuries]. / Diafragmaskader.

Diaphragmatic injuries are serious, since they can lead to herniation of abdominal organs into the thorax. The injury is simple to treat when diagnosed early. The operation can then be performed with direct suturing. Concomitant injuries are common, however, and complicate diagnosis and treatment in an acute situation. During the period 1980-90, 30 patients with diaphragmatic injuries where treated in Ullevål hospital, 18 after closed and 12 after penetrating trauma. 28 of the 30 patients also had associated injuries. In four patients the diagnosis was initially missed. The majority of the patients were treated by laparotomy. Four patients died during the primary admission to the hospital, one of them suddenly in delirium tremens, two from massive bleeding from a pelvic fracture and one from septicemia and multiorgan failure. One patient died four years later from pneumococcal septicemia. No patient died because of the diaphragmatic injury, and traumatic diaphragmatic hernia due to earlier injuries was not registered during the study period.

Effects of a combined drug regimen on tumour necrosis factor and plasma kallikrein activity in experimental endotoxaemia.

OBJECTIVE: To clarify the relationship between changes in haemodynamics, liberation of tumour necrosis factor and generation of plasma kallikrein, and to see if treatment with a combination of drugs was successful in preventing activation of tumour necrosis factor and plasma kallikrein in experimental endotoxic shock. DESIGN: Controlled study. MATERIAL: 22 juvenile pigs. INTERVENTIONS: 15 animals received 0.01 mg/kg endotoxin infusion, the rest being given the same volume of saline. 10 received no treatment, and 5 were given a combination of methylprednisolone, naloxone, ketanserin, promethazine, C1 esterase inhibitor, antithrombin III and aprotinin. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Assessment of the liberation of tumour necrosis factor, generation of plasma kallikrein, and haemodynamic and cellular effects of endotoxaemia. RESULTS: There was a linear statistical relationship between decreases in cardiac output and increases in packed cell volume, and between increases in packed cell volume and plasma kallikrein activity. The combination treatment totally blocked all the effects of the infusion of endotoxin. CONCLUSION: Endotoxin affects several mediators, but combination treatment can prevent some of these effects.

Combined drug therapy in porcine endotoxemia. Hemodynamic and proteolytic effects of antagonists against histamine, serotonin and endorphin.

In order to investigate the importance of potential mediators of pathophysiologic derangements in endotoxemia, we have examined the effects of the combined administration of antagonists against histamine, serotonin and endorphins in a porcine model of endotoxemia. The treatment regimen significantly reduced the increase in pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary vascular resistance and systemic arterial pressure seen in the early stages of endotoxemia. Also, cardiac output was better maintained. However, the hemodynamic performance after an observation period of 5 h was not statistically different from untreated animals. The treatment regimen did not hinder the activation of the kallikreinkinin and fibrinolytic systems of plasma, which was evident in both treated and untreated animals, and could not counteract the increase in hematocrit or leukopenia seen in this model. This study shows that the combined blocking of histamine, serotonin and endorphines is not enough to abrogate the detrimental effects of endotoxin in a porcine model.

[Abdominal injuries after blunt trauma]. / Abdominalskade etter stumpt traume.

We present a series of 331 patients admitted to hospital in 1980-87 with abdominal injuries after blunt trauma. The patients included 230 males and 101 females. The median age was 29 years. More than half of the patients were injured in traffic accidents. 11% were transferred to our Trauma Center from other hospitals, median five hours after the accident. A doctor-manned helicopter transported 52 patients (18%) directly to our hospital. 70% had extra-abdominal injuries as well. A minimum of 20% were intoxicated by alcohol and/or drugs. Severe injuries (AIS greater than 3) were present in 46%. 168 patients underwent laparotomy, in 56% within two hours of admission. In 27 of the 168 laparotomized patients (16%) no intraabdominal injury was encountered that needed repair.

[Diagnostic peritoneal lavage in blunt abdominal trauma]. / Diagnostisk peritoneal skylling ved stumpe abdominaltraumer.

Peritoneal lavage was performed in 142 of 331 patients submitted to hospital after blunt abdominal trauma. The lavage catheter was introduced through a short infra-umbilical longitudinal incision with surgically controlled access to the peritoneal cavity. First time lavage was positive in 58 out of 68 patients in demand of laparotomy, and after repeated lavages in 66 of 68. In 12 patients there was a false positive lavage. The sensitivity was 97% and the specificity 84%. Negative lavage strongly indicates that laparotomy is not necessary. A positive test as an indication for laparotomy should be regarded with reservation. The method is simple to perform and represents a valuable supplement to clinical evaluation in patients with blunt abdominal trauma.

[Delayed surgery in blunt abdominal trauma]. / Forsinket operasjon ved stumpe buktraumer.

Abdominal organ injuries caused by blunt trauma are notoriously difficult to diagnose, and for this reason an operation may be dangerously delayed. 426 abdominal organ injuries were registered in a series of 331 patients admitted after blunt abdominal trauma. 151 of these patients had 199 abdominal organ injuries which required surgical repair. In 31 patients (20%) with 44 organ injuries, operation was delayed for more than six hours after admission, in most cases because of missed diagnosis. One of these patients died as a result. Hollow viscus injuries were the most commonly missed. In addition to repeated clinical evaluation, peritoneal lavage, repeated if necessary, and diagnostic imaging must be used as valuable tools of diagnosis, especially in comatous patients, in patients with multiple injuries, and in intoxicated patients.

Plasma proteolysis and circulating cells in relation to varying endotoxin concentrations in porcine endotoxemia.

Ten juvenile pigs receiving a continuous infusion of 0.01 mg/kg of endotoxin over 3 hr and seven animals infused with sterile saline (serving as controls) were studied for 5 hr. Endotoxin concentrations in plasma as determined with a chromogenic Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test reached a steady state of about 1,000 ng/liter after 1 hr and declined rapidly as the infusion was discontinued. Preinfusion values were reached at the end of the observation period. Endotoxin concentrations found during the infusion period were comparable with those seen in humans with septicemia. The endotoxin infusion was followed by hemoconcentration, leukocytopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Using chromogenic peptide substrate assays, activation of the plasma kallikrein-kinin, fibrinolytic, and coagulation systems was detected. Although the endotoxin concentrations reached preinfusion values within the last 2 hr of the observation period, changes found in circulating cells and components of the plasma cascade systems did not normalize, and the hemodynamic situation did not change.

Plasma kallikrein generation in endotoxemia is abolished by ultra high doses of methyl-prednisolone: in vivo studies in a pig model.

Thirty-one healthy young pigs were studied to evaluate the effects of methylprednisolone sodium succinate (MP) on cellular, proteolytic, and hemodynamic parameters in normal and endotoxin-exposed animals. Fourteen animals served as controls, whereas 17 test animals received a continuous infusion of endotoxin, 0.01 mg/kg/3hr. Seven of the test animals and seven of the control group received a total of 200 mg/kg body weight over 5 hr of MP, 100 mg/kg as pretreatment before the endotoxin infusion was started. The administration of MP to control animals did not cause changes in the plasma kallikrein-kinin system, as determined with chromogenic peptide substrate assays. Only temporary effects, which normalized during the observation period, were seen in hemodynamic parameters. The pretreatment with MP significantly counteracted the increases in plasma kallikrein activity (KK) and the decreases in functional kallikrein inhibition capacity (KKI) seen after endotoxin infusion in untreated animals. Marked reductions in the number of circulating leukocytes and platelets were observed in untreated endotoxemia, together with increases in hematocrit. Furthermore, increases in pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and decreases in cardiac output (CO), left ventricular stroke work (LVSW), and mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2) ensued. The changes in circulating cells, PVR, and SvO2 were significantly counteracted by MP treatment, whereas changes in hematocrit, CO, and LVSW were only moderately improved.

[Penetrating abdominal injuries]. / Penetrerende abdominalskader.

We have reviewed the medical records of 111 patients treated for abdominal stab wounds during the period 1980-87. Our two hospitals serve a catchment area of about 450,000 people. Exploratory laparotomy was performed in 89 patients with suspected peritoneal penetration. In 16 patients the laparotomy was negative, and in 15 patients only minor injuries were noted. There were no serious complications in these 31 patients. Twenty-seven patients had thoracic wounds below the fourth intercostal space, 15 with intraabdominal injuries. The most common injuries were lacerations of the liver, the small bowel and the diaphragm. The mortality in the series was 2%. Stab wounds are infrequent in Norway, and most surgeons have limited experience of such injuries. We discuss whether to employ immediate exploratory laparotomy or selective management when the peritoneum has been penetrated. When there is no evidence of evisceration or omental protrusion, local exploration of the wound should be performed in order to confirm or exclude peritoneal penetration. Injury to the diaphragm and intraabdominal viscera should always be suspected in thoracic stab wounds below the fourth intercostal space.