HLA-DQ8 Supports Development of Insulitis Mediated by Insulin-Reactive Human TCR-Transgenic T Cells in Nonobese Diabetic Mice.

In an effort to improve HLA-"humanized" mouse models for type 1 diabetes (T1D) therapy development, we previously generated directly in the NOD strain CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletions of various combinations of murine MHC genes. These new models improved upon previously available platforms by retaining ß2-microglobulin functionality in FcRn and nonclassical MHC class I formation. As proof of concept, we generated H2-Db/H2-Kd double knockout NOD mice expressing human HLA-A*0201 or HLA-B*3906 class I variants that both supported autoreactive diabetogenic CD8+ T cell responses. In this follow-up work, we now describe the creation of 10 new NOD-based mouse models expressing various combinations of HLA genes with and without chimeric transgenic human TCRs reactive to proinsulin/insulin. The new TCR-transgenic models develop differing levels of insulitis mediated by HLA-DQ8-restricted insulin-reactive T cells. Additionally, these transgenic T cells can transfer insulitis to newly developed NSG mice lacking classical murine MHC molecules, but expressing HLA-DQ8. These new models can be used to test potential therapeutics for a possible capacity to reduce islet infiltration or change the phenotype of T cells expressing type 1 diabetes patient-derived ß cell autoantigen-specific TCRs.

Peptide mimotopes alter T cell function in cancer and autoimmunity.

T cells recognize and respond to self antigens in both cancer and autoimmunity. One strategy to influence this response is to incorporate amino acid substitutions into these T cell-specific epitopes. This strategy is being reconsidered now with the goal of increasing time to regression with checkpoint blockade therapies in cancer and antigen-specific immunotherapies in autoimmunity. We discuss how these amino acid substitutions change the interactions with the MHC class I or II molecule and the responding T cell repertoire. Amino acid substitutions in epitopes that are the most effective in therapies bind more strongly to T cell receptor and/or MHC molecules and cross-react with the same repertoire of T cells as the natural antigen.

T-cell responses to hybrid insulin peptides prior to type 1 diabetes development.

T-cell responses to posttranslationally modified self-antigens are associated with many autoimmune disorders. In type 1 diabetes, hybrid insulin peptides (HIPs) are implicated in the T-cell-mediated destruction of insulin-producing ß-cells within pancreatic islets. The natural history of the disease is such that it allows for the study of T-cell reactivity prior to the onset of clinical symptoms. We hypothesized that CD4 T-cell responses to posttranslationally modified islet peptides precedes diabetes onset. In a cohort of genetically at-risk individuals, we measured longitudinal T-cell responses to native insulin and hybrid insulin peptides. Both proinflammatory (interferon-γ) and antiinflammatory (interluekin-10) cytokine responses to HIPs were more robust than those to native peptides, and the ratio of such responses oscillated between pro- and antiinflammatory over time. However, individuals who developed islet autoantibodies or progressed to clinical type 1 diabetes had predominantly inflammatory T-cell responses to HIPs. Additionally, several HIP T-cell responses correlated to worsening measurements of blood glucose, highlighting the relevance of T-cell responses to posttranslationally modified peptides prior to autoimmune disease development.

Human islet T cells are highly reactive to preproinsulin in type 1 diabetes.

Cytotoxic CD8 T lymphocytes play a central role in the tissue destruction of many autoimmune disorders. In type 1 diabetes (T1D), insulin and its precursor preproinsulin are major self-antigens targeted by T cells. We comprehensively examined preproinsulin specificity of CD8 T cells obtained from pancreatic islets of organ donors with and without T1D and identified epitopes throughout the entire preproinsulin protein and defective ribosomal products derived from preproinsulin messenger RNA. The frequency of preproinsulin-reactive T cells was significantly higher in T1D donors than nondiabetic donors and also differed by individual T1D donor, ranging from 3 to over 40%, with higher frequencies in T1D organ donors with HLA-A*02:01. Only T cells reactive to preproinsulin-related peptides isolated from T1D donors demonstrated potent autoreactivity. Reactivity to similar regions of preproinsulin was also observed in peripheral blood of a separate cohort of new-onset T1D patients. These findings have important implications for designing antigen-specific immunotherapies and identifying individuals that may benefit from such interventions.

The microRNA miR-181 is a critical cellular metabolic rheostat essential for NKT cell ontogenesis and lymphocyte development and homeostasis.

Regulation of metabolic pathways in the immune system provides a mechanism to actively control cellular function, growth, proliferation, and survival. Here, we report that miR-181 is a nonredundant determinant of cellular metabolism and is essential for supporting the biosynthetic demands of early NKT cell development. As a result, miR-181-deficient mice showed a complete absence of mature NKT cells in the thymus and periphery. Mechanistically, miR-181 modulated expression of the phosphatase PTEN to control PI3K signaling, which was a primary stimulus for anabolic metabolism in immune cells. Thus miR-181-deficient mice also showed severe defects in lymphoid development and T cell homeostasis associated with impaired PI3K signaling. These results uncover miR-181 as essential for NKT cell development and establish this family of miRNAs as central regulators of PI3K signaling and global metabolic fitness during development and homeostasis.

Instability of the transcription factor Foxp3 leads to the generation of pathogenic memory T cells in vivo.

Regulatory T cells (T(reg) cells) are central to the maintenance of immune homeostasis. However, little is known about the stability of T(reg) cells in vivo. In this study, we demonstrate that a substantial percentage of cells had transient or unstable expression of the transcription factor Foxp3. These 'exFoxp3' T cells had an activated-memory T cell phenotype and produced inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, exFoxp3 cell numbers were higher in inflamed tissues in autoimmune conditions. Adoptive transfer of autoreactive exFoxp3 cells led to the rapid onset of diabetes. Finally, analysis of the T cell receptor repertoire suggested that exFoxp3 cells developed from both natural and adaptive T(reg) cells. Thus, the generation of potentially autoreactive effector T cells as a consequence of Foxp3 instability has important implications for understanding autoimmune disease pathogenesis.

Revealing the specificity of regulatory T cells in murine autoimmune diabetes.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) control organ-specific autoimmunity in a tissue antigen-specific manner, yet little is known about their specificity in a natural repertoire. In this study, we used the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of autoimmune diabetes to investigate the antigen specificity of Tregs present in the inflamed tissue, the islets of Langerhans. Compared with Tregs present in spleen and lymph node, Tregs in the islets showed evidence of antigen stimulation that correlated with higher proliferation and expression of activation markers CD103, ICOS, and TIGIT. T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire profiling demonstrated that islet Treg clonotypes are expanded in the islets, suggesting localized antigen-driven expansion in inflamed islets. To determine their specificity, we captured TCRαß pairs from islet Tregs using single-cell TCR sequencing and found direct evidence that some of these TCRs were specific for islet-derived antigens including insulin B:9-23 and proinsulin. Consistently, insulin B:9-23 tetramers readily detected insulin-specific Tregs in the islets of NOD mice. Lastly, islet Tregs from prediabetic NOD mice were effective at preventing diabetes in Treg-deficient NOD.CD28-/- recipients. These results provide a glimpse into the specificities of Tregs in a natural repertoire that are crucial for opposing the progression of autoimmune diabetes.

Simultaneous Recognition of Allogeneic MHC and Cognate Autoantigen by Autoreactive T Cells in Transplant Rejection.

The autoimmune condition is a primary obstacle to inducing tolerance in type 1 diabetes patients receiving allogeneic pancreas transplants. It is unknown how autoreactive T cells that recognize self-MHC molecules contribute to MHC-disparate allograft rejection. In this report, we show the presence and accumulation of dual-reactive, that is autoreactive and alloreactive, T cells in C3H islet allografts that were transplanted into autoimmune diabetic NOD mice. Using high-throughput sequencing, we discovered that T cells prevalent in allografts share identical TCRs with autoreactive T cells present in pancreatic islets. T cells expressing TCRs that are enriched in allograft lesions recognized C3H MHC molecules, and five of six cell lines expressing these TCRs were also reactive to NOD islet cells. These results reveal the presence of autoreactive T cells that mediate cross-reactive alloreactivity, and indicate a requirement for regulating such dual-reactive T cells in tissue replacement therapies given to autoimmune individuals.

Type 1 diabetes induction in humanized mice.

There is an urgent and unmet need for humanized in vivo models of type 1 diabetes to study immunopathogenesis and immunotherapy, and in particular antigen-specific therapy. Transfer of patient blood lymphocytes to immunodeficient mice is associated with xenogeneic graft-versus-host reactivity that complicates assessment of autoimmunity. Improved models could identify which human T cells initiate and participate in beta-cell destruction and help define critical target islet autoantigens. We used humanized mice (hu-mice) containing robust human immune repertoires lacking xenogeneic graft-versus-host reactivity to address this question. Hu-mice constructed by transplantation of HLA-DQ8+ human fetal thymus and CD34+ cells into HLA-DQ8-transgenic immunodeficient mice developed hyperglycemia and diabetes after transfer of autologous HLA-DQ8/insulin-B:9-23 (InsB:9-23)-specific T-cell receptor (TCR)-expressing human CD4+ T cells and immunization with InsB:9-23. Survival of the infused human T cells depended on the preexisting autologous human immune system, and pancreatic infiltration by human CD3+ T cells and insulitis were observed in the diabetic hu-mice, provided their islets were stressed by streptozotocin. This study fits Koch's postulate for pathogenicity, demonstrating a pathogenic role of islet autoreactive CD4+ T-cell responses in type 1 diabetes induction in humans, underscores the role of the target beta-cells in their immunological fate, and demonstrates the capacity to initiate disease with T cells, recognizing the InsB:9-23 epitope in the presence of islet inflammation. This preclinical model has the potential to be used in studies of the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes and for testing of clinically relevant therapeutic interventions.

Shared αß TCR Usage in Lungs of Sarcoidosis Patients with Löfgren's Syndrome.

Sarcoidosis is a granulomatous disease that primarily affects the lungs and is characterized by an accumulation of CD4+ T cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Previous work has indicated that HLA-DRB1*03:01+ (DR3+) patients diagnosed with the acute form of the disease, Löfgren's syndrome (LS), have an accumulation of CD4+ T cells bearing TCRs using TRAV12-1 (formerly AV2S3). However, the importance of these α-chains in disease pathogenesis and the paired TCRß-chain remains unknown. This study aimed to identify expanded αßTCR pairs expressed on CD4+ T cells derived from the BAL of DR3+ LS patients. Using a deep-sequencing approach, we determined TCRα- and TCRß-chain usage, as well as αßTCR pairs expressed on BAL CD4+ T cells from LS patients. TRAV12-1 and TRBV2 (formerly BV22) were the most expanded V region gene segments in DR3+ LS patients relative to control subjects, and TRAV12-1 and TRBV2 CDR3 motifs were shared among multiple DR3+ LS patients. When assessing αßTCR pairing, TRAV12-1 preferentially paired with TRBV2, and these TRAV12-1/TRBV2 TCRs displayed CDR3 homology. These findings suggest that public CD4+ TCR repertoires exist among LS patients and that these T cells are recognizing the putative sarcoidosis-associated Ag(s) in the context of DR3.

Regulatory vs. inflammatory cytokine T-cell responses to mutated insulin peptides in healthy and type 1 diabetic subjects.

Certain class II MHC (MHCII) alleles in mice and humans confer risk for or protection from type 1 diabetes (T1D). Insulin is a major autoantigen in T1D, but how its peptides are presented to CD4 T cells by MHCII risk alleles has been controversial. In the mouse model of T1D, CD4 T cells respond to insulin B-chain peptide (B:9-23) mimotopes engineered to bind the mouse MHCII molecule, IA(g7), in an unfavorable position or register. Because of the similarities between IA(g7) and human HLA-DQ T1D risk alleles, we examined control and T1D subjects with these risk alleles for CD4 T-cell responses to the same natural B:9-23 peptide and mimotopes. A high proportion of new-onset T1D subjects mounted an inflammatory IFN-γ response much more frequently to one of the mimotope peptides than to the natural peptide. Surprisingly, the control subjects bearing an HLA-DQ risk allele also did. However, these control subjects, especially those with only one HLA-DQ risk allele, very frequently made an IL-10 response, a cytokine associated with regulatory T cells. T1D subjects with established disease also responded to the mimotope rather than the natural B:9-23 peptide in proliferation assays and the proliferating cells were highly enriched in certain T-cell receptor sequences. Our results suggest that the risk of T1D may be related to how an HLA-DQ genotype determines the balance of T-cell inflammatory vs. regulatory responses to insulin, having important implications for the use and monitoring of insulin-specific therapies to prevent diabetes onset.

Monoclonal antibody blocking the recognition of an insulin peptide-MHC complex modulates type 1 diabetes.

The primary autoantigen triggering spontaneous type 1 diabetes mellitus in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice is insulin. The major T-cell insulin epitope lies within the amino acid 9-23 peptide of the ß-chain (B:9-23). This peptide can bind within the peptide binding groove of the NOD MHC class II molecule (MHCII), IA(g7), in multiple positions or "registers." However, the majority of pathogenic CD4 T cells recognize this complex only when the insulin peptide is bound in register 3 (R3). We hypothesized that antibodies reacting specifically with R3 insulin-IA(g7) complexes would inhibit autoimmune diabetes specifically without interfering with recognition of other IA(g7)-presented antigens. To test this hypothesis, we generated a monoclonal antibody (mAb287), which selectively binds to B:9-23 and related variants when presented by IA(g7) in R3, but not other registers. The monoclonal antibody blocks binding of IA(g7)-B:10-23 R3 tetramers to cognate T cells and inhibits T-cell responses to soluble B:9-23 peptides and NOD islets. However, mAb287 has no effect on recognition of other peptides bound to IA(g7) or other MHCII molecules. Intervention with mAb287, but not irrelevant isotype matched antibody, at either early or late stages of disease development, significantly delayed diabetes onset by inhibiting infiltration by not only insulin-specific CD4 T cells, but also by CD4 and CD8 T cells of other specificities. We propose that peptide-MHC-specific monoclonal antibodies can modulate autoimmune disease without the pleiotropic effects of nonselective reagents and, thus, could be applicable to the treatment of multiple T-cell mediated autoimmune disorders.

TCR affinity and tolerance mechanisms converge to shape T cell diabetogenic potential.

Autoreactive T cells infiltrating the target organ can possess a broad TCR affinity range. However, the extent to which such biophysical parameters contribute to T cell pathogenic potential remains unclear. In this study, we selected eight InsB9-23-specific TCRs cloned from CD4(+) islet-infiltrating T cells that possessed a relatively broad range of TCR affinity to generate NOD TCR retrogenic mice. These TCRs exhibited a range of two-dimensional affinities (∼ 10(-4)-10(-3) µm(4)) that correlated with functional readouts and responsiveness to activation in vivo. Surprisingly, both higher and lower affinity TCRs could mediate potent insulitis and autoimmune diabetes, suggesting that TCR affinity does not exclusively dictate or correlate with diabetogenic potential. Both central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms selectively impinge on the diabetogenic potential of high-affinity TCRs, mitigating their pathogenicity. Thus, TCR affinity and multiple tolerance mechanisms converge to shape and broaden the diabetogenic T cell repertoire, potentially complicating efforts to induce broad, long-term tolerance.

Excessive Th1 responses due to the absence of TGF-ß signaling cause autoimmune diabetes and dysregulated Treg cell homeostasis.

TGF-ß signaling in T cells is critical for peripheral T-cell tolerance by regulating effector CD4(+) T helper (Th) cell differentiation. However, it is still controversial to what extent TGF-ß signaling in Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells contributes to immune homeostasis. Here we showed that abrogation of TGF-ß signaling in thymic T cells led to rapid type 1 diabetes (T1D) development in NOD mice transgenic for the BDC2.5 T-cell receptor. Disease development in these mice was associated with increased peripheral Th1 cells, whereas Th17 cells and Foxp3(+) Treg cells were reduced. Blocking of IFN-γ signaling alone completely suppressed diabetes development in these mice, indicating a critical role of Th1 cells in this model. Furthermore, deletion of TGF-ß signaling in peripheral effector CD4(+) T cells, but not Treg cells, also resulted in rapid T1D development, suggesting that conventional CD4(+) T cells are the main targets of TGF-ß to suppress T1D. TGF-ß signaling was dispensable for Treg cell function, development, and maintenance, but excessive IFN-γ production due to the absence of TGF-ß signaling in naive CD4(+) T cells indirectly caused dysregulated Treg cell homeostasis. We further showed that T cell-derived TGF-ß1 was critical for suppression of Th1 cell differentiation and T1D development. These results indicate that autocrine/paracrine TGF-ß signaling in diabetogenic CD4(+) T cells, but not Treg cells, is essential for controlling T1D development.

Molecular Interactions Governing Autoantigen Presentation in Type 1 Diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes is a chronic autoimmune disease resulting from T cell-mediated destruction of insulin-producing beta cells within pancreatic islets. Disease incidence has increased significantly in the last two decades, especially in young children. Type 1 diabetes is now predictable in humans with the measurement of serum islet autoantibodies directed against insulin and beta cell proteins. Knowledge regarding the presentation of insulin and islet antigens to T cells has increased dramatically over the last several years. Here, we review the trimolecular complex in diabetes, which consists of a major histocompatibility molecule,self-peptide, and T cell receptor, with a focus on insulin peptide presentation to T cells. With this increased understanding of how antigens are presented to T cells comes the hope for improved therapies for type 1 diabetes prevention.

Cutting edge: CD4 T cells reactive to an islet amyloid polypeptide peptide accumulate in the pancreas and contribute to disease pathogenesis in nonobese diabetic mice.

We previously reported a peptide KS20 from islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP) to be the target Ag for a highly diabetogenic CD4 T cell clone BDC-5.2.9. To track IAPP-reactive T cells in NOD mice and determine how they contribute to the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes, we designed a new I-Ag7 tetramer with high affinity for BDC-5.2.9 that contains the peptide KS20. We found that significant numbers of KS20 tetramer(+) CD4 T cells can be detected in the pancreas of prediabetic and diabetic NOD mice. To verify pathogenicity of IAPP-reactive cells, we sorted KS20 tetramer(+) cells and cloned them from uncloned T cell lines isolated from spleen and lymph nodes of diabetic mice. We isolated a new KS20-reactive Th1 CD4 T cell clone that rapidly transfers diabetes. Our results suggest that IAPP triggers a broad autoimmune response by CD4 T cells in NOD mice.

Specificity and detection of insulin-reactive CD4+ T cells in type 1 diabetes in the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse.

In the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes (T1D), an insulin peptide (B:9-23) is a major target for pathogenic CD4(+) T cells. However, there is no consensus on the relative importance of the various positions or "registers" this peptide can take when bound in the groove of the NOD MHCII molecule, IA(g7). This has hindered structural studies and the tracking of the relevant T cells in vivo with fluorescent peptide-MHCII tetramers. Using mutated B:9-23 peptides and methods for trapping the peptide in particular registers, we show that most, if not all, NOD CD4(+) T cells react to B:9-23 bound in low-affinity register 3. However, these T cells can be divided into two types depending on whether their response is improved or inhibited by substituting a glycine for the B:21 glutamic acid at the p8 position of the peptide. On the basis of these findings, we constructed a set of fluorescent insulin-IA(g7) tetramers that bind to most insulin-specific T-cell clones tested. A mixture of these tetramers detected a high frequency of B:9-23-reactive CD4(+) T cells in the pancreases of prediabetic NOD mice. Our data are consistent with the idea that, within the pancreas, unique processing of insulin generates truncated peptides that lack or contain the B:21 glutamic acid. In the thymus, the absence of this type of processing combined with the low affinity of B:9-23 binding to IA(g7) in register 3 may explain the escape of insulin-specific CD4(+) T cells from the mechanisms that usually eliminate self-reactive T cells.

Germline-like TCR-α chains shared between autoreactive T cells in blood and pancreas.

Human type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by autoimmune attack on the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells by islet antigen-reactive T cells. How human islet antigen-reactive (IAR) CD4+ memory T cells from peripheral blood affect T1D progression in the pancreas is poorly understood. Here, we aim to determine if IAR T cells in blood could be detected in pancreas. We identify paired αß (TRA/TRB) T cell receptors (TCRs) in IAR T cells from the blood of healthy, at-risk, new-onset, and established T1D donors, and measured sequence overlap with TCRs in pancreata from healthy, at risk and T1D organ donors. We report extensive TRA junction sharing between IAR T cells and pancreas-infiltrating T cells (PIT), with perfect-match or single-mismatch TRA junction amino acid sequences comprising ~29% total unique IAR TRA junctions (942/3,264). PIT-matched TRA junctions were largely public and enriched for TRAV41 usage, showing significant nucleotide sequence convergence, increased use of germline-encoded versus non-templated residues in epitope engagement, and a potential for cross-reactivity. Our findings thus link T cells with distinctive germline-like TRA chains in the peripheral blood with T cells in the pancreas.

Coxsackievirus infection induces direct pancreatic ß cell killing but poor antiviral CD8+ T cell responses.

Coxsackievirus B (CVB) infection of pancreatic ß cells is associated with ß cell autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes. We investigated how CVB affects human ß cells and anti-CVB T cell responses. ß cells were efficiently infected by CVB in vitro, down-regulated human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I, and presented few, selected HLA-bound viral peptides. Circulating CD8+ T cells from CVB-seropositive individuals recognized a fraction of these peptides; only another subfraction was targeted by effector/memory T cells that expressed exhaustion marker PD-1. T cells recognizing a CVB epitope cross-reacted with ß cell antigen GAD. Infected ß cells, which formed filopodia to propagate infection, were more efficiently killed by CVB than by CVB-reactive T cells. Our in vitro and ex vivo data highlight limited CD8+ T cell responses to CVB, supporting the rationale for CVB vaccination trials for type 1 diabetes prevention. CD8+ T cells recognizing structural and nonstructural CVB epitopes provide biomarkers to differentially follow response to infection and vaccination.

Structure-based selection of small molecules to alter allele-specific MHC class II antigen presentation.

Class II major histocompatibility molecules are the primary susceptibility locus for many autoimmune disorders, including type 1 diabetes. Human DQ8 and I-A(g7), in the NOD mouse model of spontaneous autoimmune diabetes, confers diabetes risk by modulating presentation of specific islet peptides in the thymus and periphery. We used an in silico molecular docking program to screen a large "druglike" chemical library to define small molecules capable of occupying specific structural pockets along the I-A(g7) binding groove, with the objective of influencing presentation to T cells of the autoantigen insulin B chain peptide consisting of amino acids 9-23. In this study we show, using both murine and human cells, that small molecules can enhance or inhibit specific TCR signaling in the presence of cognate target peptides, based upon the structural pocket targeted. The influence of compounds on the TCR response was pocket dependent, with pocket 1 and 6 compounds inhibiting responses and molecules directed at pocket 9 enhancing responses to peptide. At nanomolar concentrations, the inhibitory molecules block the insulin B chain peptide consisting of amino acids 9-23, endogenous insulin, and islet-stimulated T cell responses. Glyphosine, a pocket 9 compound, enhances insulin peptide presentation to T cells at concentrations as low as 10 nM, upregulates IL-10 secretion, and prevents diabetes in NOD mice. These studies present a novel method for identifying small molecules capable of both stimulating and inhibiting T cell responses, with potentially therapeutic applications.