SARS-CoV-2 BA.2.86 enters lung cells and evades neutralizing antibodies with high efficiency.

BA.2.86, a recently identified descendant of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron BA.2 sublineage, contains ∼35 mutations in the spike (S) protein and spreads in multiple countries. Here, we investigated whether the virus exhibits altered biological traits, focusing on S protein-driven viral entry. Employing pseudotyped particles, we show that BA.2.86, unlike other Omicron sublineages, enters Calu-3 lung cells with high efficiency and in a serine- but not cysteine-protease-dependent manner. Robust lung cell infection was confirmed with authentic BA.2.86, but the virus exhibited low specific infectivity. Further, BA.2.86 was highly resistant against all therapeutic antibodies tested, efficiently evading neutralization by antibodies induced by non-adapted vaccines. In contrast, BA.2.86 and the currently circulating EG.5.1 sublineage were appreciably neutralized by antibodies induced by the XBB.1.5-adapted vaccine. Collectively, BA.2.86 has regained a trait characteristic of early SARS-CoV-2 lineages, robust lung cell entry, and evades neutralizing antibodies. However, BA.2.86 exhibits low specific infectivity, which might limit transmissibility.

The Omicron variant is highly resistant against antibody-mediated neutralization: Implications for control of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The rapid spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant suggests that the virus might become globally dominant. Further, the high number of mutations in the viral spike protein raised concerns that the virus might evade antibodies induced by infection or vaccination. Here, we report that the Omicron spike was resistant against most therapeutic antibodies but remained susceptible to inhibition by sotrovimab. Similarly, the Omicron spike evaded neutralization by antibodies from convalescent patients or individuals vaccinated with the BioNTech-Pfizer vaccine (BNT162b2) with 12- to 44-fold higher efficiency than the spike of the Delta variant. Neutralization of the Omicron spike by antibodies induced upon heterologous ChAdOx1 (Astra Zeneca-Oxford)/BNT162b2 vaccination or vaccination with three doses of BNT162b2 was more efficient, but the Omicron spike still evaded neutralization more efficiently than the Delta spike. These findings indicate that most therapeutic antibodies will be ineffective against the Omicron variant and that double immunization with BNT162b2 might not adequately protect against severe disease induced by this variant.

Macrophage- and CD4+ T cell-derived SIV differ in glycosylation, infectivity and neutralization sensitivity.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope protein (Env) mediates viral entry into host cells and is the primary target for the humoral immune response. Env is extensively glycosylated, and these glycans shield underlying epitopes from neutralizing antibodies. The glycosylation of Env is influenced by the type of host cell in which the virus is produced. Thus, HIV is distinctly glycosylated by CD4+ T cells, the major target cells, and macrophages. However, the specific differences in glycosylation between viruses produced in these cell types have not been explored at the molecular level. Moreover, it remains unclear whether the production of HIV in CD4+ T cells or macrophages affects the efficiency of viral spread and resistance to neutralization. To address these questions, we employed the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) model. Glycan analysis implied higher relative levels of oligomannose-type N-glycans in SIV from CD4+ T cells (T-SIV) compared to SIV from macrophages (M-SIV), and the complex-type N-glycans profiles seem to differ between the two viruses. Notably, M-SIV demonstrated greater infectivity than T-SIV, even when accounting for Env incorporation, suggesting that host cell-dependent factors influence infectivity. Further, M-SIV was more efficiently disseminated by HIV binding cellular lectins. We also evaluated the influence of cell type-dependent differences on SIV's vulnerability to carbohydrate binding agents (CBAs) and neutralizing antibodies. T-SIV demonstrated greater susceptibility to mannose-specific CBAs, possibly due to its elevated expression of oligomannose-type N-glycans. In contrast, M-SIV exhibited higher susceptibility to neutralizing sera in comparison to T-SIV. These findings underscore the importance of host cell-dependent attributes of SIV, such as glycosylation, in shaping both infectivity and the potential effectiveness of intervention strategies.

Native and activated antithrombin inhibits TMPRSS2 activity and SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Host cell proteases such as TMPRSS2 are critical determinants of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) tropism and pathogenesis. Here, we show that antithrombin (AT), an endogenous serine protease inhibitor regulating coagulation, is a broad-spectrum inhibitor of coronavirus infection. Molecular docking and enzyme activity assays demonstrate that AT binds and inhibits TMPRSS2, a serine protease that primes the Spike proteins of coronaviruses for subsequent fusion. Consequently, AT blocks entry driven by the Spikes of SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, hCoV-229E, SARS-CoV-2 and its variants of concern including Omicron, and suppresses lung cell infection with genuine SARS-CoV-2. Thus, AT is an endogenous inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 that may be involved in COVID-19 pathogenesis. We further demonstrate that activation of AT by anticoagulants, such as heparin or fondaparinux, increases the anti-TMPRSS2 and anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of AT, suggesting that repurposing of native and activated AT for COVID-19 treatment should be explored.

The SARS-CoV-2 Delta-Omicron Recombinant Lineage (XD) Exhibits Immune-Escape Properties Similar to the Omicron (BA.1) Variant.

Recently, a recombinant SARS-CoV-2 lineage, XD, emerged that harbors a spike gene that is largely derived from the Omicron variant BA.1 in the genetic background of the Delta variant. This finding raised concerns that the recombinant virus might exhibit altered biological properties as compared to the parental viruses and might pose an elevated threat to human health. Here, using pseudotyped particles, we show that ACE2 binding and cell tropism of XD mimics that of BA.1. Further, XD and BA.1 displayed comparable sensitivity to neutralization by antibodies induced upon vaccination with BNT162b2/Comirnaty (BNT) or BNT vaccination followed by breakthrough infection. Our findings reveal important biological commonalities between XD and Omicron BA.1 host cell entry and its inhibition by antibodies.

Humoral and Cellular Immune Responses Against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Variants and Human Coronaviruses After Single BNT162b2 Vaccination.

BACKGROUND: Vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies are key in combating the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. However, delays of boost immunization due to limited availability of vaccines may leave individuals vulnerable to infection and prolonged or severe disease courses. The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants of concern (VOC)-B.1.1.7 (United Kingdom), B.1.351 (South Africa), and P.1 (Brazil)-may exacerbate this issue, as the latter two are able to evade control by antibodies. METHODS: We assessed humoral and T-cell responses against SARS-CoV-2 wild-type (WT), VOC, and endemic human coronaviruses (hCoVs) that were induced after single and double vaccination with BNT162b2. RESULTS: Despite readily detectable immunoglobulin G (IgG) against the receptor-binding domain of the SARS-CoV-2 S protein at day 14 after a single vaccination, inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 S-driven host cell entry was weak and particularly low for the B.1.351 variant. Frequencies of SARS-CoV-2 WT and VOC-specific T cells were low in many vaccinees after application of a single dose and influenced by immunity against endemic hCoV. The second vaccination significantly boosted T-cell frequencies reactive for WT and B.1.1.7 and B.1.351 variants. CONCLUSIONS: These results call into question whether neutralizing antibodies significantly contribute to protection against COVID-19 upon single vaccination and suggest that cellular immunity is central for the early defenses against COVID-19.

Glycan-Gold Nanoparticles as Multifunctional Probes for Multivalent Lectin-Carbohydrate Binding: Implications for Blocking Virus Infection and Nanoparticle Assembly.

Multivalent lectin-glycan interactions are widespread in biology and are often exploited by pathogens to bind and infect host cells. Glycoconjugates can block such interactions and thereby prevent infection. The inhibition potency strongly depends on matching the spatial arrangement between the multivalent binding partners. However, the structural details of some key lectins remain unknown and different lectins may exhibit overlapping glycan specificity. This makes it difficult to design a glycoconjugate that can potently and specifically target a particular multimeric lectin for therapeutic interventions, especially under the challenging in vivo conditions. Conventional techniques such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) can provide quantitative binding thermodynamics and kinetics. However, they cannot reveal key structural information, e.g., lectin's binding site orientation, binding mode, and interbinding site spacing, which are critical to design specific multivalent inhibitors. Herein we report that gold nanoparticles (GNPs) displaying a dense layer of simple glycans are powerful mechanistic probes for multivalent lectin-glycan interactions. They can not only quantify the GNP-glycan-lectin binding affinities via a new fluorescence quenching method, but also reveal drastically different affinity enhancing mechanisms between two closely related tetrameric lectins, DC-SIGN (simultaneous binding to one GNP) and DC-SIGNR (intercross-linking with multiple GNPs), via a combined hydrodynamic size and electron microscopy analysis. Moreover, a new term, potential of assembly formation (PAF), has been proposed to successfully predict the assembly outcomes based on the binding mode between GNP-glycans and lectins. Finally, the GNP-glycans can potently and completely inhibit DC-SIGN-mediated augmentation of Ebola virus glycoprotein-driven cell entry (with IC50 values down to 95 pM), but only partially block DC-SIGNR-mediated virus infection. Our results suggest that the ability of a glycoconjugate to simultaneously block all binding sites of a target lectin is key to robust inhibition of viral infection.

Hemagglutinin Cleavability, Acid Stability, and Temperature Dependence Optimize Influenza B Virus for Replication in Human Airways.

Influenza A virus (IAV) and influenza B virus (IBV) cause yearly epidemics with significant morbidity and mortality. When zoonotic IAVs enter the human population, the viral hemagglutinin (HA) requires adaptation to achieve sustained virus transmission. In contrast, IBV has been circulating in humans, its only host, for a long period of time. Whether this entailed adaptation of IBV HA to the human airways is unknown. To address this question, we compared two seasonal IAVs (A/H1N1 and A/H3N2) and two IBVs (B/Victoria and B/Yamagata lineages) with regard to host-dependent activity of HA as the mediator of membrane fusion during viral entry. We first investigated proteolytic activation of HA by covering all type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) and kallikrein enzymes, many of which proved to be present in human respiratory epithelium. The IBV HA0 precursor is cleaved by a broader panel of TTSPs and activated with much higher efficiency than IAV HA0. Accordingly, knockdown of a single protease, TMPRSS2, abrogated spread of IAV but not IBV in human respiratory epithelial cells. Second, the HA fusion pH values proved similar for IBV and human-adapted IAVs (with one exception being the HA of 1918 IAV). Third, IBV HA exhibited higher expression at 33°C, a temperature required for membrane fusion by B/Victoria HA. This indicates pronounced adaptation of IBV HA to the mildly acidic pH and cooler temperature of human upper airways. These distinct and intrinsic features of IBV HA are compatible with extensive host adaptation during prolonged circulation of this respiratory virus in the human population.IMPORTANCE Influenza epidemics are caused by influenza A and influenza B viruses (IAV and IBV, respectively). IBV causes substantial disease; however, it is far less studied than IAV. While IAV originates from animal reservoirs, IBV circulates in humans only. Virus spread requires that the viral hemagglutinin (HA) is active and sufficiently stable in human airways. We resolve here how these mechanisms differ between IBV and IAV. Whereas human IAVs rely on one particular protease for HA activation, this is not the case for IBV. Superior activation of IBV by several proteases should enhance shedding of infectious particles. IBV HA exhibits acid stability and a preference for 33°C, indicating pronounced adaptation to the human upper airways, where the pH is mildly acidic and a cooler temperature exists. These adaptive features are rationalized by the long existence of IBV in humans and may have broader relevance for understanding the biology and evolution of respiratory viruses.

Tetherin Inhibits Nipah Virus but Not Ebola Virus Replication in Fruit Bat Cells.

Ebola virus (EBOV) and Nipah virus (NiV) infection of humans can cause fatal disease and constitutes a public health threat. In contrast, EBOV and NiV infection of fruit bats, the putative (EBOV) or proven (NiV) natural reservoir, is not associated with disease, and it is currently unknown how these animals control the virus. The human interferon (IFN)-stimulated antiviral effector protein tetherin (CD317, BST-2) blocks release of EBOV- and NiV-like particles from cells and is counteracted by the EBOV glycoprotein (GP). In contrast, it is unknown whether fruit bat tetherin restricts virus infection and is susceptible to GP-driven antagonism. Here, we report the sequence of fruit bat tetherin and show that its expression is IFN stimulated and associated with strong antiviral activity. Moreover, we demonstrate that EBOV-GP antagonizes tetherin orthologues of diverse species but fails to efficiently counteract fruit bat tetherin in virus-like particle (VLP) release assays. However, unexpectedly, tetherin was dispensable for robust IFN-mediated inhibition of EBOV spread in fruit bat cells. Thus, the VLP-based model systems mimicking tetherin-mediated inhibition of EBOV release and its counteraction by GP seem not to adequately reflect all aspects of EBOV release from IFN-stimulated fruit bat cells, potentially due to differences in tetherin expression levels that could not be resolved by the present study. In contrast, tetherin expression was essential for IFN-dependent inhibition of NiV infection, demonstrating that IFN-induced fruit bat tetherin exerts antiviral activity and may critically contribute to control of NiV and potentially other highly virulent viruses in infected animals.IMPORTANCE Ebola virus and Nipah virus (EBOV and NiV) can cause fatal disease in humans. In contrast, infected fruit bats do not develop symptoms but can transmit the virus to humans. Why fruit bats but not humans control infection is largely unknown. Tetherin is an antiviral host cell protein and is counteracted by the EBOV glycoprotein in human cells. Here, employing model systems, we show that tetherin of fruit bats displays higher antiviral activity than human tetherin and is largely resistant against counteraction by the Ebola virus glycoprotein. Moreover, we demonstrate that induction of tetherin expression is critical for interferon-mediated inhibition of NiV but, for at present unknown reasons, not EBOV spread in fruit bat cells. Collectively, our findings identify tetherin as an antiviral effector of innate immune responses in fruit bats, which might allow these animals to control infection with NiV and potentially other viruses that cause severe disease in humans.

H2 influenza A virus is not pathogenic in Tmprss2 knock-out mice.

The host cell protease TMPRSS2 cleaves the influenza A virus (IAV) hemagglutinin (HA). Several reports have described resistance of Tmprss2-/- knock-out (KO) mice to IAV infection but IAV of the H2 subtype have not been examined yet. Here, we demonstrate that TMPRSS2 is able to cleave H2-HA in cell culture and that Tmprss2-/- mice are resistant to infection with a re-assorted PR8_HA(H2) virus. Infection of KO mice did not cause major body weight loss or death. Furthermore, no significant increase in lung weights and no virus replication were observed in Tmprss2-/- mice. Finally, only minor tissue damage and infiltration of immune cells were detected and no virus-positive cells were found in histological sections of Tmprss2-/- mice. In summary, our studies indicate that TMPRSS2 is required for H2 IAV spread and pathogenesis in mice. These findings extend previous results pointing towards a central role of TMPRSS2 in IAV infection and validate host proteases as a potential target for antiviral therapy.

Tmprss2 knock-out mice are resistant to H10 influenza A virus pathogenesis.

The surface protein haemagglutinin (HA) of influenza A viruses (IAV) needs to be cleaved by a host protease to become functional. Here, we investigated if IAV of the H10 subtype also requires TMPRSS2 for replication and pathogenesis in mice. We first showed in cell culture that TMPRSS2 is able to cleave H10-HA. When Tmprss2-/- deficient mice were infected with a re-assorted virus H10-HA, they did not lose body weight and no viral replication was observed in contrast to wild-type mice. Histopathological analysis showed that inflammatory lesions in the lung of Tmprss2-/- mice were reduced compared to wild-type mice. In addition, no viral antigen was detected in the lungs of Tmprss2-/- mice and no evidence for HA cleavage was observed. We conclude from these studies that TMPRSS2 activity is also essential for in vivo replication and pathogenesis of H10 IAV.

Virion Background and Efficiency of Virion Incorporation Determine Susceptibility of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Env-Driven Viral Entry to Inhibition by IFITM Proteins.

Interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) can inhibit the cellular entry of several enveloped viruses, including simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). The blockade of SIV by IFITMs is isolate specific, raising the question of which parameters impact sensitivity to IFITM. We show that the virion context in which SIV-Env is presented and the efficiency of virion incorporation determine Env susceptibility to inhibition by IFITMs. Thus, determinants other than the nature of the envelope protein can impact the IFITM sensitivity of viral entry. IMPORTANCE: The host cell-encoded IFITM proteins can block viral entry and are an important component of the innate defenses against viral infection. However, the determinants controlling whether a virus is susceptible to blockade by IFITM proteins are incompletely understood. Our study shows that the amount of envelope proteins incorporated into virions as well as the nature of the virion particle itself can impact the sensitivity of viral entry to IFITMs. These results show for the first time that determinants other than the viral envelope protein can impact sensitivity to IFITM and have implications for the interpretation of previously published data on inhibition of viruses by IFITM proteins. Moreover, our findings might help to define the mechanism underlying the antiviral activity of IFITM proteins.

A Polymorphism within the Internal Fusion Loop of the Ebola Virus Glycoprotein Modulates Host Cell Entry.

The large scale of the Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak in West Africa in 2013-2016 raised the question whether the host cell interactions of the responsible Ebola virus (EBOV) strain differed from those of other ebolaviruses. We previously reported that the glycoprotein (GP) of the virus circulating in West Africa in 2014 (EBOV2014) exhibited reduced ability to mediate entry into two nonhuman primate (NHP)-derived cell lines relative to the GP of EBOV1976. Here, we investigated the molecular determinants underlying the differential entry efficiency. We found that EBOV2014-GP-driven entry into diverse NHP-derived cell lines, as well as human monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells, was reduced compared to EBOV1976-GP, although entry into most human- and all bat-derived cell lines tested was comparable. Moreover, EBOV2014 replication in NHP but not human cells was diminished relative to EBOV1976, suggesting that reduced cell entry translated into reduced viral spread. Mutagenic analysis of EBOV2014-GP and EBOV1976-GP revealed that an amino acid polymorphism in the receptor-binding domain, A82V, modulated entry efficiency in a cell line-independent manner and did not account for the reduced EBOV2014-GP-driven entry into NHP cells. In contrast, polymorphism T544I, located in the internal fusion loop in the GP2 subunit, was found to be responsible for the entry phenotype. These results suggest that position 544 is an important determinant of EBOV infectivity for both NHP and certain human target cells.IMPORTANCE The Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa in 2013 entailed more than 10,000 deaths. The scale of the outbreak and its dramatic impact on human health raised the question whether the responsible virus was particularly adept at infecting human cells. Our study shows that an amino acid exchange, A82V, that was acquired during the epidemic and that was not observed in previously circulating viruses, increases viral entry into diverse target cells. In contrast, the epidemic virus showed a reduced ability to enter cells of nonhuman primates compared to the virus circulating in 1976, and a single amino acid exchange in the internal fusion loop of the viral glycoprotein was found to account for this phenotype.

Dissecting Multivalent Lectin-Carbohydrate Recognition Using Polyvalent Multifunctional Glycan-Quantum Dots.

Multivalent protein-carbohydrate interactions initiate the first contacts between virus/bacteria and target cells, which ultimately lead to infection. Understanding the structures and binding modes involved is vital to the design of specific, potent multivalent inhibitors. However, the lack of structural information on such flexible, complex, and multimeric cell surface membrane proteins has often hampered such endeavors. Herein, we report that quantum dots (QDs) displayed with a dense array of mono-/disaccharides are powerful probes for multivalent protein-glycan interactions. Using a pair of closely related tetrameric lectins, DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR, which bind to the HIV and Ebola virus glycoproteins (EBOV-GP) to augment viral entry and infect target cells, we show that such QDs efficiently dissect the different DC-SIGN/R-glycan binding modes (tetra-/di-/monovalent) through a combination of multimodal readouts: Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), hydrodynamic size measurement, and transmission electron microscopy imaging. We also report a new QD-FRET method for quantifying QD-DC-SIGN/R binding affinity, revealing that DC-SIGN binds to the QD >100-fold tighter than does DC-SIGNR. This result is consistent with DC-SIGN's higher trans-infection efficiency of some HIV strains over DC-SIGNR. Finally, we show that the QDs potently inhibit DC-SIGN-mediated enhancement of EBOV-GP-driven transduction of target cells with IC50 values down to 0.7 nM, matching well to their DC-SIGN binding constant (apparent Kd = 0.6 nM) measured by FRET. These results suggest that the glycan-QDs are powerful multifunctional probes for dissecting multivalent protein-ligand recognition and predicting glyconanoparticle inhibition of virus infection at the cellular level.

The Tetherin Antagonism of the Ebola Virus Glycoprotein Requires an Intact Receptor-Binding Domain and Can Be Blocked by GP1-Specific Antibodies.

The glycoprotein of Ebola virus (EBOV GP), a member of the family Filoviridae, facilitates viral entry into target cells. In addition, EBOV GP antagonizes the antiviral activity of the host cell protein tetherin, which may otherwise restrict EBOV release from infected cells. However, it is unclear how EBOV GP antagonizes tetherin, and it is unknown whether the GP of Lloviu virus (LLOV), a filovirus found in dead bats in Northern Spain, also counteracts tetherin. Here, we show that LLOV GP antagonizes tetherin, indicating that tetherin may not impede LLOV spread in human cells. Moreover, we demonstrate that appropriate processing of N-glycans in tetherin/GP-coexpressing cells is required for tetherin counteraction by EBOV GP. Furthermore, we show that an intact receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the GP1 subunit of EBOV GP is a prerequisite for tetherin counteraction. In contrast, blockade of Niemann-Pick disease type C1 (NPC1), a cellular binding partner of the RBD, did not interfere with tetherin antagonism. Finally, we provide evidence that an antibody directed against GP1, which protects mice from a lethal EBOV challenge, may block GP-dependent tetherin antagonism. Our data, in conjunction with previous reports, indicate that tetherin antagonism is conserved among the GPs of all known filoviruses and demonstrate that the GP1 subunit of EBOV GP plays a central role in tetherin antagonism. IMPORTANCE: Filoviruses are reemerging pathogens that constitute a public health threat. Understanding how Ebola virus (EBOV), a highly pathogenic filovirus responsible for the 2013-2016 Ebola virus disease epidemic in western Africa, counteracts antiviral effectors of the innate immune system might help to define novel targets for antiviral intervention. Similarly, determining whether Lloviu virus (LLOV), a filovirus detected in bats in northern Spain, is inhibited by innate antiviral effectors in human cells might help to determine whether the virus constitutes a threat to humans. The present study shows that LLOV, like EBOV, counteracts the antiviral effector protein tetherin via its glycoprotein (GP), suggesting that tetherin does not pose a defense against LLOV spread in humans. Moreover, our work identifies the GP1 subunit of EBOV GP, in particular an intact receptor-binding domain, as critical for tetherin counteraction and provides evidence that antibodies directed against GP1 can interfere with tetherin counteraction.

Tetherin Sensitivity of Influenza A Viruses Is Strain Specific: Role of Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase.

UNLABELLED: The expression of the antiviral host cell factor tetherin is induced by interferon and can inhibit the release of enveloped viruses from infected cells. The Vpu protein of HIV-1 antagonizes the antiviral activity of tetherin, and tetherin antagonists with Vpu-like activity have been identified in other viruses. In contrast, it is incompletely understood whether tetherin inhibits influenza A virus (FLUAV) release and whether FLUAV encodes tetherin antagonists. Here, we show that release of several laboratory-adapted FLUAV strains and a seasonal FLUAV strain is inhibited by tetherin, while pandemic FLUAV A/Hamburg/4/2009 is resistant. Studies with a virus-like particle system and analysis of reassortant viruses provided evidence that the viral hemagglutinin (HA) is an important determinant of tetherin antagonism but requires the presence of its cognate neuraminidase (NA) to inhibit tetherin. Finally, tetherin antagonism by FLUAV was dependent on the virion context, since retrovirus release from tetherin-positive cells was not rescued, and correlated with an HA- and NA-dependent reduction in tetherin expression. In sum, our study identifies HA and NA proteins of certain pandemic FLUAV as tetherin antagonists, which has important implications for understanding FLUAV pathogenesis. IMPORTANCE: Influenza A virus (FLUAV) infection is responsible for substantial global morbidity and mortality, and understanding how the virus evades the immune defenses of the host may uncover novel targets for antiviral intervention. Tetherin is an antiviral effector molecule of the innate immune system which can contribute to control of viral invasion. However, it has been unclear whether FLUAV is inhibited by tetherin and whether these viruses encode tetherin-antagonizing proteins. Our observation that several pandemic FLUAV strains can counteract tetherin via their HA and NA proteins identifies these proteins as novel tetherin antagonists and indicates that HA/NA-dependent inactivation of innate defenses may contribute to the efficient spread of pandemic FLUAV.

Exclusive Decoration of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Env with High-Mannose Type N-Glycans Is Not Compatible with Mucosal Transmission in Rhesus Macaques.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope (Env) proteins are extensively decorated with N-glycans, predominantly of the high-mannose type. However, it is unclear how high-mannose N-glycans on Env impact viral spread. We show that exclusive modification of SIV Env with these N-glycans reduces viral infectivity and abrogates mucosal transmission, despite increasing viral capture by immune cell lectins. Thus, high-mannose N-glycans have opposed effects on SIV infectivity and lectin reactivity, and a balance might be required for efficient mucosal transmission.

Compact, Polyvalent Mannose Quantum Dots as Sensitive, Ratiometric FRET Probes for Multivalent Protein-Ligand Interactions.

A highly efficient cap-exchange approach for preparing compact, dense polyvalent mannose-capped quantum dots (QDs) has been developed. The resulting QDs have been successfully used to probe multivalent interactions of HIV/Ebola receptors DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR (collectively termed as DC-SIGN/R) using a sensitive, ratiometric Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay. The QD probes specifically bind DC-SIGN, but not its closely related receptor DC-SIGNR, which is further confirmed by its specific blocking of DC-SIGN engagement with the Ebola virus glycoprotein. Tuning the QD surface mannose valency reveals that DC-SIGN binds more efficiently to densely packed mannosides. A FRET-based thermodynamic study reveals that the binding is enthalpy-driven. This work establishes QD FRET as a rapid, sensitive technique for probing structure and thermodynamics of multivalent protein-ligand interactions.

DESC1 and MSPL activate influenza A viruses and emerging coronaviruses for host cell entry.

The type II transmembrane serine protease (TTSP) TMPRSS2 cleaves and activates the influenza virus and coronavirus surface proteins. Expression of TMPRSS2 is essential for the spread and pathogenesis of H1N1 influenza viruses in mice. In contrast, H3N2 viruses are less dependent on TMPRSS2 for viral amplification, suggesting that these viruses might employ other TTSPs for their activation. Here, we analyzed TTSPs, reported to be expressed in the respiratory system, for the ability to activate influenza viruses and coronaviruses. We found that MSPL and, to a lesser degree, DESC1 are expressed in human lung tissue and cleave and activate the spike proteins of the Middle East respiratory syndrome and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses for cell-cell and virus-cell fusion. In addition, we show that these proteases support the spread of all influenza virus subtypes previously pandemic in humans. In sum, we identified two host cell proteases that could promote the amplification of influenza viruses and emerging coronaviruses in humans and might constitute targets for antiviral intervention. Importance: Activation of influenza viruses by host cell proteases is essential for viral infectivity and the enzymes responsible are potential targets for antiviral intervention. The present study demonstrates that two cellular serine proteases, DESC1 and MSPL, activate influenza viruses and emerging coronaviruses in cell culture and, because of their expression in human lung tissue, might promote viral spread in the infected host. Antiviral strategies aiming to prevent viral activation might thus need to encompass inhibitors targeting MSPL and DESC1.