Mitochondrial DNA and TLR9 drive muscle inflammation upon Opa1 deficiency.

Opa1 participates in inner mitochondrial membrane fusion and cristae morphogenesis. Here, we show that muscle-specific Opa1 ablation causes reduced muscle fiber size, dysfunctional mitochondria, enhanced Fgf21, and muscle inflammation characterized by NF-κB activation, and enhanced expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Chronic sodium salicylate treatment ameliorated muscle alterations and reduced the muscle expression of Fgf21. Muscle inflammation was an early event during the progression of the disease and occurred before macrophage infiltration, indicating that it is a primary response to Opa1 deficiency. Moreover, Opa1 repression in muscle cells also resulted in NF-κB activation and inflammation in the absence of necrosis and/or apoptosis, thereby revealing that the activation is a cell-autonomous process and independent of cell death. The effects of Opa1 deficiency on the expression NF-κB target genes and inflammation were absent upon mitochondrial DNA depletion. Under Opa1 deficiency, blockage or repression of TLR9 prevented NF-κB activation and inflammation. Taken together, our results reveal that Opa1 deficiency in muscle causes initial mitochondrial alterations that lead to TLR9 activation, and inflammation, which contributes to enhanced Fgf21 expression and to growth impairment.

Mfn2 modulates the UPR and mitochondrial function via repression of PERK.

Mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) is a key protein in mitochondrial fusion and it participates in the bridging of mitochondria to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Recent data indicate that Mfn2 ablation leads to ER stress. Here we report on the mechanisms by which Mfn2 modulates cellular responses to ER stress. Induction of ER stress in Mfn2-deficient cells caused massive ER expansion and excessive activation of all three Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) branches (PERK, XBP-1, and ATF6). In spite of an enhanced UPR, these cells showed reduced activation of apoptosis and autophagy during ER stress. Silencing of PERK increased the apoptosis of Mfn2-ablated cells in response to ER stress. XBP-1 loss-of-function ameliorated autophagic activity of these cells upon ER stress. Mfn2 physically interacts with PERK, and Mfn2-ablated cells showed sustained activation of this protein kinase under basal conditions. Unexpectedly, PERK silencing in these cells reduced ROS production, normalized mitochondrial calcium, and improved mitochondrial morphology. In summary, our data indicate that Mfn2 is an upstream modulator of PERK. Furthermore, Mfn2 loss-of-function reveals that PERK is a key regulator of mitochondrial morphology and function.

A form of mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) lacking the transmembrane domains and the COOH-terminal end stimulates metabolism in muscle and liver cells.

Mitofusin 2 (Mfn2), a protein that participates in mitochondrial fusion, is required to maintain normal mitochondrial metabolism in skeletal muscle and liver. Given that muscle Mfn2 is repressed in obese or type 2 diabetic subjects, this protein may have a potential pathophysiological role in these conditions. To evaluate whether the metabolic effects of Mfn2 can be dissociated from its function in mitochondrial dynamics, we studied a form of human Mfn2, lacking the two transmembrane domains and the COOH-terminal coiled coil (ΔMfn2). This form localized in mitochondria but did not alter mitochondrial morphology in cells or in skeletal muscle fibers. The expression of ΔMfn2 in mouse skeletal muscle stimulated glucose oxidation and enhanced respiratory control ratio, which occurred in the absence of changes in mitochondrial mass. ΔMfn2 did not stimulate mitochondrial respiration in Mfn2-deficient muscle cells. The expression of ΔMfn2 in mouse liver or in hepatoma cells stimulated gluconeogenesis. In addition, ΔMfn2 activated basal and maximal respiration both in muscle and liver cells. In all, we show that a form of Mfn2 lacking mitochondrial fusion activity stimulates mitochondrial function and enhances glucose metabolism in muscle and liver tissues. This study suggests that Mfn2 regulates metabolism independently of changes in mitochondrial morphology.

Mitochondrial Dynamics Mediated by Mitofusin 1 Is Required for POMC Neuron Glucose-Sensing and Insulin Release Control.

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons are critical sensors of nutrient availability implicated in energy balance and glucose metabolism control. However, the precise mechanisms underlying nutrient sensing in POMC neurons remain incompletely understood. We show that mitochondrial dynamics mediated by Mitofusin 1 (MFN1) in POMC neurons couple nutrient sensing with systemic glucose metabolism. Mice lacking MFN1 in POMC neurons exhibited defective mitochondrial architecture remodeling and attenuated hypothalamic gene expression programs during the fast-to-fed transition. This loss of mitochondrial flexibility in POMC neurons bidirectionally altered glucose sensing, causing abnormal glucose homeostasis due to defective insulin secretion by pancreatic ß cells. Fed mice lacking MFN1 in POMC neurons displayed enhanced hypothalamic mitochondrial oxygen flux and reactive oxygen species generation. Central delivery of antioxidants was able to normalize the phenotype. Collectively, our data posit MFN1-mediated mitochondrial dynamics in POMC neurons as an intrinsic nutrient-sensing mechanism and unveil an unrecognized link between this subset of neurons and insulin release.

Insulin stimulates mitochondrial fusion and function in cardiomyocytes via the Akt-mTOR-NFκB-Opa-1 signaling pathway.

Insulin regulates heart metabolism through the regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. Studies have indicated that insulin can also regulate mitochondrial function. Relevant to this idea, mitochondrial function is impaired in diabetic individuals. Furthermore, the expression of Opa-1 and mitofusins, proteins of the mitochondrial fusion machinery, is dramatically altered in obese and insulin-resistant patients. Given the role of insulin in the control of cardiac energetics, the goal of this study was to investigate whether insulin affects mitochondrial dynamics in cardiomyocytes. Confocal microscopy and the mitochondrial dye MitoTracker Green were used to obtain three-dimensional images of the mitochondrial network in cardiomyocytes and L6 skeletal muscle cells in culture. Three hours of insulin treatment increased Opa-1 protein levels, promoted mitochondrial fusion, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, and elevated both intracellular ATP levels and oxygen consumption in cardiomyocytes in vitro and in vivo. Consequently, the silencing of Opa-1 or Mfn2 prevented all the metabolic effects triggered by insulin. We also provide evidence indicating that insulin increases mitochondrial function in cardiomyocytes through the Akt-mTOR-NFκB signaling pathway. These data demonstrate for the first time in our knowledge that insulin acutely regulates mitochondrial metabolism in cardiomyocytes through a mechanism that depends on increased mitochondrial fusion, Opa-1, and the Akt-mTOR-NFκB pathway.