Recruitment of α4ß7 monocytes and neutrophils to the brain in experimental colitis is associated with elevated cytokines and anxiety-like behavior.

BACKGROUND: Behavioral comorbidities, such as anxiety and depression, are a prominent feature of IBD. The signals from the inflamed gut that cause changes in the brain leading to these behavioral comorbidities remain to be fully elucidated. We tested the hypothesis that enhanced leukocyte-cerebral endothelial cell interactions occur in the brain in experimental colitis, mediated by α4ß7 integrin, to initiate neuroimmune activation and anxiety-like behavior. METHODS: Female mice treated with dextran sodium sulfate were studied at the peak of acute colitis. Circulating leukocyte populations were determined using flow cytometry. Leukocyte-cerebral endothelial cell interactions were examined using intravital microscopy in mice treated with anti-integrin antibodies. Brain cytokine and chemokines were assessed using a multiplex assay in animals treated with anti-α4ß7 integrin. Anxiety-like behavior was assessed using an elevated plus maze in animals after treatment with an intracerebroventricular injection of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist. RESULTS: The proportion of classical monocytes expressing α4ß7 integrin was increased in peripheral blood of mice with colitis. An increase in the number of rolling and adherent leukocytes on cerebral endothelial cells was observed, the majority of which were neutrophils. Treatment with anti-α4ß7 integrin significantly reduced the number of rolling leukocytes. After anti-Ly6C treatment to deplete monocytes, the number of rolling and adhering neutrophils was significantly reduced in mice with colitis. Interleukin-1ß and CCL2 levels were elevated in the brain and treatment with anti-α4ß7 significantly reduced them. Enhanced anxiety-like behavior in mice with colitis was reversed by treatment with interleukin 1 receptor antagonist. CONCLUSIONS: In experimental colitis, α4ß7 integrin-expressing monocytes direct the recruitment of neutrophils to the cerebral vasculature, leading to elevated cytokine levels. Increased interleukin-1ß mediates anxiety-like behavior.

Comparison of corticosterone responses to acute stressors: chronic jugular vein versus trunk blood samples in mice.

A commonly used method for obtaining blood samples from mice is decapitation. However, there is an obvious need for repeated blood sampling in mice under stress-free conditions. Here, we describe a simple technique to repeatedly collect blood samples from conscious, freely moving mice through a chronically implanted jugular vein catheter. Furthermore, we compare plasma corticosterone (CORT) concentrations in samples obtained through the catheter 1 day after surgery with samples taken from trunk blood obtained under basal or acute stress conditions. CORT concentrations in repeated 100-µl venous blood samples were found to be similar to trunk blood samples both under basal conditions and after stressor exposure collected at identical time points (at 5, 15, and 60 min). Using both techniques, we demonstrate a progressive increase in CORT levels until 15 min after termination of stressor exposure and a decrease towards baseline values 60 min later. Anxiety-related behavior, as assessed on the elevated plus maze 3-4 days after surgery, did not differ between catheterized and non-catheterized mice. Our results provide evidence for application of jugular vein catheterization as a technique for repeated blood sampling in conscious laboratory mice. Use of this technique will greatly reduce the number of animals required for experiments involving endocrine endpoints.

Attenuation of the neuronal stress responsiveness and corticotrophin releasing hormone synthesis after sexual activity in male rats.

Beneficial effects of sexual activity and mating on the responsiveness to environmental stress can be observed in humans and other mammalian species alike, but the underlying neurobiological mechanisms are largely unknown. Sexual activity and mating with a receptive female has recently been shown to reduce the subsequent emotional stress response via activation of the brain oxytocin system. Therefore, we investigated the neuronal and hormonal responses to an acute stressor (forced swimming) after mating in male rats. Attenuation of the stress-induced increase of c-fos and CRH mRNA expression within the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus 4 h after mating revealed that sexual activity reduced neuronal reactivity in this region. However, this effect was independent of oxytocin as oxytocin receptor blockade, by central administration of an oxytocin receptor antagonist, after mating did not prevent the reduced expression of c-fos mRNA in response to stressor exposure. Mating itself stimulated corticotrophin (ACTH) and corticosterone secretion, which was absent in males after contact with an unreceptive female (non-mated group). However, ACTH and corticosterone responses to forced swimming applied either 45 min or 4 h after female contact were similar between mated and non-mated males. These findings provide evidence for a stress-protective effect of sexual activity and mating in male rats and for dissociation between neuronal and neuroendocrine stress responses.

Effects of colour exposure on auditory and somatosensory perception--hints for cross-modal plasticity.

OBJECTIVES: It is well known that colour exposure can influence emotions, behaviour and perception. To get further insight into these complex synesthetic phenomena, the effect of colour stimulation on auditory and somatosensory perception was systematically investigated. METHODS: 14 healthy male volunteers with normal colour vision rated the loudness of auditory stimuli with a standardized scale during exposure to white, red and green light. Furthermore temperature perception was assessed during exposure of the different colours using a thermal sensory analyser. RESULTS: Colour exposure significantly altered auditory and somatosensory perception. Red light enhanced loudness perception and decreased cold pain thresholds, while green light stimulation reduced loudness perception and increased detection and pain thresholds for warm stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: This data give further evidence for cross-modal plasticity in human perception. Colour stimulation influences auditory and somatosensory perception and may therefore have potential as a new treatment strategy of phantom perceptions such as tinnitus or chronic pain.

Altered Brain Excitability and Increased Anxiety in Mice With Experimental Colitis: Consideration of Hyperalgesia and Sex Differences.

Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are incurable lifelong inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) with a rising worldwide incidence. IBD is characterized by diarrhea, rectal bleeding, severe cramping and weight loss. However, there is a growing evidence that IBD is also associated with anxiety- and depression-related disorders, which further increase the societal burden of these diseases. Given the limited knowledge of central nervous system (CNS) changes in IBD, we investigated CNS-related comorbidities in a mouse model of experimental colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) administration in drinking water for 5 days. In male and female C57BL6J mice, DSS treatment caused increased brain excitability, revealed by a decrease in seizure onset times after intraperitoneal administration of kainic acid. Moreover, both sexes showed increased anxiety-related behavior in the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and open field (OF) paradigms. We assessed somatic pain levels, because they may influence behavioral responses. Only male mice were hyperalgesic when tested with calibrated von Frey hairs and on the hotplate for mechanical and thermal pain sensitivity respectively. Administration of diazepam (DZP; ip, 1 mg/kg) 30 min before EPM rescued the anxious phenotype and improved locomotion, even though it significantly increased thermal sensitivity in both sexes. This indicates that the altered behavioral response is unlikely attributable to an interference with movement due to somatic pain in females. We show that experimental colitis increases CNS excitability in response to administration of kainic acid, and increases anxiety-related behavior as revealed using the EPM and OF tests.

Toward a better understanding of the central consequences of intestinal inflammation.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), which include Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Quality of life for IBD patients is negatively affected by associated pain and gastrointestinal dysfunction, but also by serious behavioral symptoms that include depression, anxiety, fatigue, and cognitive dysfunction. Because these behavioral comorbidities are poorly understood, we have investigated them in a rat model of IBD caused by infusion of a hapten (trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)) into the lower colon. TNBS colitis has many similarities to Crohn's disease, and we have found that it is associated with changes in central nervous system function. TNBS-treated animals have lowered seizure thresholds, which resolve following remission, and hippocampal slices from such animals display increased excitability. There are significant changes in excitatory, AMPA receptor-mediated transmission, in part due to increased numbers of AMPA receptors lacking the GluR2 subunit. Long-term potentiation and depression are reduced in colitic animals, and the synaptic alterations are reversed if microglial activation and tumor necrosis factor α synthesis within the brain are blocked.

Chronic subordinate colony housing (CSC) as a model of chronic psychosocial stress in male rats.

Chronic subordinate colony housing (CSC) is an adequate and reliable mouse model of chronic psychosocial stress, resulting in reduced body weight gain, reduced thymus and increased adrenal weight, long-lasting anxiety-like behaviour, and spontaneous colitis. Furthermore, CSC mice show increased corticotrophin (ACTH) responsiveness to acute heterotypic stressors, suggesting a general mechanism which allows a chronically-stressed organism to adequately respond to a novel threat. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to extend the CSC model to another rodent species, namely male Wistar rats, and to characterize relevant physiological, immunological, and behavioural consequences; placing particular emphasis on changes in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responsiveness to an acute heterotypic stressor. In line with previous mouse data, exposure of Wistar rats to 19 days of CSC resulted in a decrease in body weight gain and absolute thymus mass, mild colonic barrier defects and intestinal immune activation. Moreover, no changes in stress-coping behaviour or social preference were seen; again in agreement with the mouse paradigm. Most importantly, CSC rats showed an increased plasma corticosterone response to an acute heterotypic stressor (open arm, 5 min) despite displaying similar basal levels and similar basal and stressor-induced plasma ACTH levels. In contrast to CSC mice, anxiety-related behaviour and absolute, as well as relative adrenal weights remained unchanged in CSC rats. In summary, the CSC paradigm could be established as an adequate model of chronic psychosocial stress in male rats. Our data further support the initial hypothesis that adrenal hyper-responsiveness to ACTH during acute heterotypic stressors represents a general adaptation, which enables a chronically-stressed organism to adequately respond to novel challenges.

Chronic psychosocial stress results in sensitization of the HPA axis to acute heterotypic stressors despite a reduction of adrenal in vitro ACTH responsiveness.

Although chronic psychosocial stress is often accompanied by changes in basal hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, it is vital for a chronically-stressed organism to mount adequate glucocorticoid (GC) responses when exposed to acute challenges. The main aim of the present study was to test whether this is true or not for the chronic subordinate colony housing (CSC, 19 days) paradigm, an established and clinically relevant mouse model of chronic psychosocial stress. As shown previously, CSC mice are characterized by unaffected morning and decreased evening plasma corticosterone (CORT) levels despite enlarged adrenals, suggesting a maladaptive breakdown of adrenal functioning. Plasma CORT levels, determined by repeated blood sampling via jugular vein catheters, as well as relative right adrenal CORT content were increased in CSC compared with single-housed control (SHC) mice in response to acute elevated platform (EPF, 5min) exposure. However, in vitro stimulation of adrenal explants with physiological and pharmacological doses of ACTH revealed an attenuated responsiveness of both the left and right adrenal glands following CSC, despite mRNA and/or protein expression of melanocortin 2 receptor (Mc2r), Mc2r accessory protein (MRAP), and key enzymes of steroidogenesis were not down-regulated. Taken together, we show that chronic psychosocial stressor exposure impairs in vitro ACTH responsiveness of both the left and right adrenal glands, whereas it increases adrenal responsiveness to an acute heterotypic stressor in vivo. This suggests that an additional factor present during acute stressor exposure in vivo rescues left and right adrenal ACTH sensitivity, or itself acts as CORT secretagogue in chronically stressed CSC mice.

Yes, I am ready now: differential effects of paced versus unpaced mating on anxiety and central oxytocin release in female rats.

Sexual activity and partner intimacy results in several positive consequences in the context of stress-coping, both in males and females, such as reduced state anxiety in male rats after successful mating. However, in female rats, mating is a rewarding experience only when the estrous female is able to control sexual interactions, i.e., under paced-mating conditions. Here, we demonstrate that sex-steroid priming required for female mating is anxiolytic; subsequent sexual activity under paced mating conditions did not disrupt this anxiolytic priming effect, whereas mating under unpaced conditions increased anxiety-related behavior. In primed females, the release of the neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) within the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus was found to be elevated and to further increase during paced, but not unpaced mating. Central administration of an OT receptor antagonist partly prevented priming/mating-induced anxiolysis indicating the involvement of brain OT in the anxiolysis triggered by priming and/or sexual activity.These findings reveal that the positive consequences of mating in females are dependent on her ability to control sexual interactions, and that brain OT release is at least in part the underlying neurobiological correlate.