Antibiotic misuse in respiratory tract infections in children and adults-a prospective, multicentre study (TAILORED Treatment).

Respiratory tract infections (RTI) are more commonly caused by viral pathogens in children than in adults. Surprisingly, little is known about antibiotic use in children as compared to adults with RTI. This prospective study aimed to determine antibiotic misuse in children and adults with RTI, using an expert panel reference standard, in order to prioritise the target age population for antibiotic stewardship interventions. We recruited children and adults who presented at the emergency department or were hospitalised with clinical presentation of RTI in The Netherlands and Israel. A panel of three experienced physicians adjudicated a reference standard diagnosis (i.e. bacterial or viral infection) for all the patients using all available clinical and laboratory information, including a 28-day follow-up assessment. The cohort included 284 children and 232 adults with RTI (median age, 1.3 years and 64.5 years, respectively). The proportion of viral infections was larger in children than in adults (209(74%) versus 89(38%), p < 0.001). In case of viral RTI, antibiotics were prescribed (i.e. overuse) less frequently in children than in adults (77/209 (37%) versus 74/89 (83%), p < 0.001). One (1%) child and three (2%) adults with bacterial infection were not treated with antibiotics (i.e. underuse); all were mild cases. This international, prospective study confirms major antibiotic overuse in patients with RTI. Viral infection is more common in children, but antibiotic overuse is more frequent in adults with viral RTI. Together, these findings support the need for effective interventions to decrease antibiotic overuse in RTI patients of all ages.

[SPINAL SYNDESMOPHYTE SCORE DOES NOT CORRELATE WITH SERUM TESTOSTERONE LEVEL IN MALE PATIENTS WITH ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS].

AIMS: To examine statistical correlation between mSASSS and serum levels of testosterone in males suffering from AS. BACKGROUND: Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic progressive inflammatory rheumatic disease primarily involving sacroiliac joints and spine. Structural damage, caused by AS, manifests with development of vertebral syndesmophytes and can be calculated as units of modified Spinal Ankylosing Spondylitis Syndesmophyte Score (mSASSS). The rate of growth of spinal syndesmophytes differs among individual AS patients, while male patients develop significantly more structural damage compared to females in general. METHODS: Twenty males with AS known for at least 5 years (average disease duration 12.8 years) and aged between 25 to 40 years donated 5 ml of peripheral blood for serum testosterone assay, and underwent X-ray films of cervical and lumbar spine. The mSASSS was calculated and correlation with serum testosterone levels was examined using Pearson correlation test. RESULTS: The mSASSS values of patients included in the final analysis ranged from 0-14 units and testosterone levels ranged from 8.4-25.5 nmol/L. No significant correlation was found between mSASSS values and testosterone levels in this cohort. CONCLUSIONS: This study did not find statistical correlation between mSASSS and serum levels of testosterone in males suffering from AS.

[SUSTAINABILITY OF RITUXIMAB IN CONCOMMITANT TREATMENT WITH METHOTREXATE OR LEFLUNOMIDE IN PATIENTS WITH RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS].

INTRODUCTION: Rituximab is a biologic agent approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in combination with methotrexate (MTX) or leflunomide (LEF). However, limited data in the literature suggests that rituximab may have the same efficacy profile whether used in combination with MTX or as monotherapy. The aim of our study is to compare the sustainability of rituximab as monotherapy to combined therapy with MTX or LEF in Israeli patients with RA. METHODS: A total of 35 RA patients treated with rituximab combined with MTX or LEF were compared with 26 RA patients treated with rituximab monotherapy regarding sustainability of rituximab treatment and its relationship to some patient and disease-related factors. RESULTS: There was no difference in patient-related and disease-related parameters between patients treated with rituximab as monotherapy or combined with MTX/LEF. The survival of rituximab was similar in both groups (88.5% in the monotherapy group and 82.6% in the combined therapy group, p=NS), with similar percentages of patients discontinuing this biologic agent, whether due to inefficacy or side effects. CONCLUSIONS: Rituximab may be considered as a biologic monotherapy in RA patients. Further prospective studies, evaluating sustainability of rituximab as a monotherapy in patients with RA are warranted.

Rapid progression to cardiac tamponade in Erdheim-Chester disease despite treatment with interferon alpha.

Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD) is a rare form of non-Langerhans histiocytosis with heterogeneous clinical manifestations. The most common presentation is bone pains typically involving the long bones. Approximately 75% of the patients develop extraskeletal involvement. Cardiac involvement is seen in up to 45% of the patients, and although, pericardial involvement is the most common cardiac pathology of this rare disease, cardiac tamponade due to ECD has been very rarely reported. We describe a case of a patient found to have ECD with multi-organ involvement and small pericardial effusion, which progressed to cardiac tamponade despite treatment with interferon alpha.

[KIDNEY DISEASES IN NORTH ISRAEL ACCORDING TO KIDNEY BIOPSIES - BNAI-ZION MEDICAL CENTER 14 YEARS' EXPERIENCE].

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the prevalence of kidney diseases according to renal biopsy in Israel. Since updated literature worldwide emphasizes changing etiologies of chronic kidney disease, it is crucial to research and define the epidemiology and pathology of kidney disease in Israel. Hereby, we introduce an original review of the prevalence of kidney diseases in our study population, which we believe reflects the prevalence of kidney diseases in the population of Israel. AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of kidney diseases diagnosed by renal biopsy, according to age, gender, race and clinical symptoms. METHODS: A total of 155 kidney biopsies were conducted in the years 2000-2014 in Bnai-Zion Medical Center in Haifa, according to formal accepted indications. Most of the biopsies (65%) were needle aspirations in a retroperitoneal approach, in which 90% were ultrasound guided and the rest computed tomography guided, while the other 35% of biopsies involved laparoscopic approaches. RESULTS: The most common indications for kidney biopsy were nephrotic syndrome, nephritic syndrome and proteinuria (37.4%, 25.8% and 24.5%, respectively). Average glomeruli number per biopsy was 17.5 vs. 82.2 for needle aspiration and laparoscopic approach, respectively (statistically significant). The most common diagnosis was focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), followed by chronic glomerulonephritis, IgA nephropathy, lupus nephritis, minimal change disease (MCD), membranous nephropathy and tubulointerstitial disease (20%, 11.5%, 11.5%, 10.1%, 9.5%, 8.1% and 6.1%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: FSGS was the most common diagnosis in patients presented with nephrotic syndrome or proteinuria, men, and patients above 60 years of age. Patients below 30 years of age were mainly diagnosed with IgA nephropathy. DISCUSSION: In recent years, FSGS is becoming more prevalent compared with other chronic kidney disease especially in the older population. IgA nephropathy is still the most common diagnosis in young patients and in patients presented with hematuria. To the best of our knowledge, no data exists on the prevalence of kidney diseases in Israel, and our study is an important contribution to the epidemiological and clinical knowledge on the subject.

Craniocervical junction involvement in ankylosing spondylitis.

PURPOSE: Available studies of craniocervical junction (CCJ) involvement in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) are based on conventional radiography, which has limited ability in the definition of many elements of the CCJ. The goal of the present study was to describe the spectrum of computed tomography (CT) findings in the CCJ in a cohort of patients with AS. METHODS: CT scans of the cervical spine of 11 patients with AS and 33 control subjects were reviewed, and imaging findings related to the CCJ were assessed. The standard anatomic intervals describing the CCJ were measured and compared to accepted normal standards. Findings representing pathology were described, categorized by localization, and relation to joints or ligaments of the CCJ. RESULTS: All AS patients were males with median age of 48 years and median disease duration of 20 years. The calculated median-modified Stoke Ankylosing Spondylitis Spinal Score (mSASSS) for the cervical spine was 8.5 ranging from 0 to 27. Disease-related changes in one or more elements of the CCJ were detected in all patients. Atlanto-occipital joints were involved in 8 patients, while 3 patients had disease of the atlanto-dental articulation. Enthesopathy of the CCJ was observed in 7 patients. CONCLUSIONS: The CCJ is frequently involved in AS patients with advanced disease and may be independent on the mSASSS. Both articulations and ligaments of CCJ may be affected in AS patients.

[93 YEARS OF CLINICAL EMPATHY, STATE-OF-THE-ART MEDICINE AND RESEARCH EXCELLENCE].

This issue of Harefuah is devoted to articles and reviews written by the medical staff of Bnai Zion Medical Center in Haifa. Celebrating 93 years since its inception, Bnai Zion Medical Center is home to the oldest public hospital in Haifa, and a founding affiliate of the Technion's Faculty of Medicine. Known for its centers of excellence and the impactful clinical and basic research developed, the hospital has a reputation for state-of-the-art medicine, both conventional and complementary. Bnai Zion prides itself as an innovation leader in medical and nursing education, with its staff's empathetic and personalized approach to patient care, and the center's dedication to applying emotional intelligence to medicine.

Dissociation of electromyogram and mechanical response in sleep apnoea during propofol anaesthesia.

Pharyngeal collapsibility during sleep is believed to increase due to a decline in dilator muscle activity. However, genioglossus electromyogram (EMG) often increases during apnoeas and hypopnoeas, often without mechanical effect. 17 patients with obstructive sleep apnoea were anaesthetised and evaluated from termination of propofol administration to awakening. Genioglossus EMG, flow and pharyngeal area (pharyngoscopy) were monitored. Prolonged hypopnoeas enabled evaluation of the relationships between genioglossus EMG and mechanical events, before and after awakening. Additional dilator muscle EMGs were recorded and compared to the genioglossus. Electrical stimulation of the genioglossus was used to evaluate possible mechanical dysfunction. Prolonged hypopnoeas during inspiration before arousal triggered an increase in genioglossus EMG, reaching mean ± SD 62.2 ± 32.7% of maximum. This augmented activity failed to increase flow and pharyngeal area. Awakening resulted in fast pharyngeal enlargement and restoration of unobstructed flow, with marked reduction in genioglossus EMG. Electrical stimulation of the genioglossus under propofol anaesthesia increased the inspiratory pharyngeal area (from 25.1 ± 28 to 66.3 ± 75.5 mm(2); p<0.01) and flow (from 11.5 ± 6.5 to 18.6 ± 9.2 L · min(-1); p<0.001), indicating adequate mechanical response. All additional dilators increased their inspiratory activity during hypopnoeas. During propofol anaesthesia, pharyngeal occlusion persists despite large increases in genioglossus EMG, in the presence of a preserved mechanical response to electrical stimulation.

Weight change during pharmacological blockade of interleukin-6 or tumor necrosis factor-α in patients with inflammatory rheumatic disorders: a 16-week comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin (IL)-6 -/- mice develop spontaneous mature onset obesity, while the influence of the pharmacological blockade of IL-6 on body weight in humans has not been previously reported. The aim of the present study was to observe weight change in patients treated with tocilizumab (TCZ). METHODS: Twenty-one consecutive patients who started new treatment with TCZ were enrolled in the study. Sixteen consecutive patients who started treatment with infliximab (IFX) formed the control group. Height and weight of all patients were registered and Body Mass Index (BMI) calculated before the first treatment and at week 16. The Mann-Whitney or paired Wilcoxon test were used for comparisons between or within groups, respectively. RESULTS: The study demonstrated that treatment with TCZ was accompanied with significant weight gain and BMI increase (p=0.04), while IFX treatment did not result in any significant weight change during the 16-week period. CONCLUSIONS: Weight gain can be seen in some patients during the pharmacological blockade of IL-6. The phenomenon and metabolic pathways involved should be further investigated.

Granular cell tumor of the neurohypophysis: case report and review of the literature.

A 54-year-old woman presented with a stalk mass that was discovered incidentally with mild visual fields defect. The mass was operated surgically by the fronto-temporal approach, and histology met the diagnosis of neurohypophesial granular cell tumor (GCT). After surgery, the patient suffered from an irreversible severe bi-temporal visual deficit and an irreversible hypopituitarism. We review the literature and discuss the clinical nature of GCTs, treatment options and outcome. In an effort to avoid the severe complications that may result from surgical removal of neurohypophesial GCT, we discuss also the possibility of choosing the conservative approach with close follow-up. The tumor's firm consistency, tendency to hemorrhage, involving the pituitary stalk and lack of dissection plane from basal brain structure render surgery difficult, and maximal resection often requires sacrificing the stalk. Moreover, small asymptomatic neurohypophysial GCTs are common findings, most probably benign tumors with slow growing nature. Hence, for a neurohypophesial tumor which is suspected to be a GCT, we offer to consider the alternative approach, with close clinical, visual field and radiological study follow up.

The diagnostic value of nasal microbiota and clinical parameters in a multi-parametric prediction model to differentiate bacterial versus viral infections in lower respiratory tract infections.

BACKGROUND: The ability to accurately distinguish bacterial from viral infection would help clinicians better target antimicrobial therapy during suspected lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI). Although technological developments make it feasible to rapidly generate patient-specific microbiota profiles, evidence is required to show the clinical value of using microbiota data for infection diagnosis. In this study, we investigated whether adding nasal cavity microbiota profiles to readily available clinical information could improve machine learning classifiers to distinguish bacterial from viral infection in patients with LRTI. RESULTS: Various multi-parametric Random Forests classifiers were evaluated on the clinical and microbiota data of 293 LRTI patients for their prediction accuracies to differentiate bacterial from viral infection. The most predictive variable was C-reactive protein (CRP). We observed a marginal prediction improvement when 7 most prevalent nasal microbiota genera were added to the CRP model. In contrast, adding three clinical variables, absolute neutrophil count, consolidation on X-ray, and age group to the CRP model significantly improved the prediction. The best model correctly predicted 85% of the 'bacterial' patients and 82% of the 'viral' patients using 13 clinical and 3 nasal cavity microbiota genera (Staphylococcus, Moraxella, and Streptococcus). CONCLUSIONS: We developed high-accuracy multi-parametric machine learning classifiers to differentiate bacterial from viral infections in LRTI patients of various ages. We demonstrated the predictive value of four easy-to-collect clinical variables which facilitate personalized and accurate clinical decision-making. We observed that nasal cavity microbiota correlate with the clinical variables and thus may not add significant value to diagnostic algorithms that aim to differentiate bacterial from viral infections.

Role of C-Reactive Protein in Discrimination between Transudative and Exudative Pleural Effusions.

BACKGROUND: There is still no wide agreement regarding the efficacy of the serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRPs), pleural fluid levels of CRP (CRPpf), and their ratio (CRPr) in the discrimination between transudative (Tr) and exudative (Ex) pleural effusions (PEs). Most of the previous studies were conducted on small cohorts, and the role of CRPs in the CRPpf gradient (CRPg) in this discrimination has not been previously reported. The present study aims to assess the diagnostic efficacy of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPg, and CRPr in the discrimination between TrPE and ExPE in a relatively large cohort of patients with PE. METHODS: The study population included 492 patients with PE, 210 of them with TrPE and 282 with ExPE. The levels of CRPs and CRPpf were measured, and the CRPg and CRPr were calculated. The values are presented as mean ± SD. RESULTS: The mean levels of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPg, and CRPr of the TrPEs were 11.3 ± 5.7 mg/L, 4.6 ± 2.8 mg/L, 6.7 ± 3.9 mg/L, and 0.40 ± 0.14, respectively, and for the ExPEs, they were 140.5 ± 112.8 mg/L, 52.8 ± 53.2 mg/L, 87.2 ± 72.4 mg/L, and 0.37 ± 0.15, respectively. The levels of CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg were significantly higher in the ExPEs than in the TrPEs (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found between the two groups for the levels of CRPr (p = 0.15). The best cut-off value calculated by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis for discriminating TrPE from ExPE was for CRPs, 20.5 mg/L with area under the curve (AUC) = 97% and p < 0.0001; for CRPpf, 9.9 mg/L with AUC = 95% and p < 0.0001; and for CRPg, 13.6 mg/L with AUC = 96% and p < 0.0001. CONCLUSION: CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg are strong markers for discrimination between TrPE and ExPE, while CRPr has no role in this discrimination.

Early Detection and Intervention for Patients with Delirium Admitted to the Department of Internal Medicine: Lessons from a Pilot Initiative.

INTRODUCTION: Older patients who arrive to the emergency room with delirium have a worse prognosis than others. Early detection and treatment of this problem has been shown to improve outcome. We have launched a project at our hospital to improve the care of patients who arrive delirious to the medical emergency room. The present article describes lessons that can be learned from this pilot initiative. METHODS: All patients older than 70 years admitted to the department of internal medicine were screened for delirium in the emergency room using the 4AT screening tool. Data of patients with a 4AT score ≥5 (or with incomplete score) were transferred to the geriatric unit of the hospital. On the ward, the presence of delirium was confirmed by a geriatric nurse that validated that the patient could walk with support and ordered mobilization and physiotherapy (M&P). RESULTS: Over the 2 and a half years (10 quarters) allocated for the pilot project, 1,078 medical patients with delirium were included in this survey. In 59.3%, the diagnosis of delirium could be confirmed only after admission. Due to budgetary constraints, only 54.7% received the allocated specific intervention - early M&P. Since it was decided that randomization was not appropriate for our initiative, we found that patients who received M&P had lower (better) 4AT scores on admission, and lower mortality. No significant difference was found between the patients who received M&P and the others in length of hospitalization and discharge to nursing homes. Retrospective comparison of the two groups did not enable to determine whether M&P was given to the patients for whom it was most effective. CONCLUSIONS: It is often not possible to verify in the emergency room that the cognitive decline is indeed new, that is, is due to delirium, and measures must be taken to verify this point as soon as possible after admission. Due to numerous constraints, the availability of early M&P is often insufficient. Whenever resources are scarce and randomization is avoided, adequate criteria should be found for allocating existing dedicated staff to patients for whom early mobilization is likely to be most beneficial.

Regulatory T cells (CD4(+)CD25(bright)FoxP3(+)) expansion in systemic sclerosis correlates with disease activity and severity.

BACKGROUND: The role and function of T regulatory (Treg) cells have not been fully investigated in patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc). METHODS: Ten patients with SSc donated 20ml of peripheral blood. Activity (Valentini) and severity (Medsger) scores for SSc were calculated for all patients. Healthy volunteers (controls) were matched to each patient by gender and age. CD4(+) cells were separated using the MACS system. The numbers of Treg cells were estimated by flow cytometry after staining for CD4, CD25, and FoxP3 and calculated as patient-to-control ratio separately for each experiment. Correlations with activity and severity indices of the disease were performed. Twenty-four-hour production of TGF-beta and IL-10 by activated CD4(+) cells was measured by ELISA in culture supernatants. RESULTS: The numbers of Treg cells, expressed as patient-to-control ratio, correlated significantly with both activity and severity indices (r=0.71, p=0.034 and r=0.67, p=0.044, respectively). ELISA-measured production of TGF-beta and IL-10 by CD4(+) cells was similar in patients and controls. CONCLUSIONS: Increased numbers of Treg cells are present in patients with SSc, correlating with activity and severity of the disease. This expansion of Treg cells was not accompanied, however, by heightened TGF-beta or IL-10 production. Further studies to elaborate the causes and functional significance of Treg cell expansion in SSc are needed.

Diagnostic Value of C-Reactive Protein in Discrimination between Uncomplicated and Complicated Parapneumonic Effusion.

OBJECTIVES: The role of serum C-reactive protein (CRPs) and pleural fluid CRP (CRPpf) in discriminating uncomplicated parapneumonic effusion (UCPPE) from complicated parapneumonic effusion (CPPE) is yet to be validated since most of the previous studies were on small cohorts and with variable results. The role of CRPs and CRPpf gradient (CRPg) and of their ratio (CRPr) in this discrimination has not been previously reported. The study aims to assess the diagnostic efficacy of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPr, and CRPg in discriminating UCPPE from CPPE in a relatively large cohort. METHODS: The study population included 146 patients with PPE, 86 with UCPPE and 60 with CPPE. Levels of CRPs and CRPpf were measured, and the CRPg and CRPr were calculated. The values are presented as mean ± SD. RESULTS: Mean levels of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPg, and CRPr of the UCPPE group were 145.3 ± 67.6 mg/L, 58.5 ± 38.5 mg/L, 86.8 ± 37.3 mg/L, and 0.39 ± 0.11, respectively, and for the CPPE group were 302.2 ± 75.6 mg/L, 112 ± 65 mg/L, 188.3 ± 62.3 mg/L, and 0.36 ± 0.19, respectively. Levels of CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg were significantly higher in the CPPE than in the UCPPE group (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found between the two groups for levels of CRPr (p = 0.26). The best cut-off value calculated by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis for discriminating UCPPE from CPPE was for CRPs, 211.5 mg/L with area under the curve (AUC) = 94% and p < 0.0001, for CRPpf, 90.5 mg/L with AUC = 76.3% and p < 0.0001, and for CRPg, 142 mg/L with AUC = 91% and p < 0.0001. CONCLUSIONS: CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg are strong markers for discrimination between UCPPE and CPPE, while CRPr has no role in this discrimination.

Interacting effects of genioglossus stimulation and mandibular advancement in sleep apnea.

Both mandibular advancement (MA) and stimulation of the genioglossus (GG) have been shown to improve upper airway patency, but neither one achieves the effect of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment. In the present study we assessed the combined effect of MA and GG stimulation on the relaxed pharynx in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). We evaluated responses of upper airway pressure-flow relationships and endoscopically determined pharyngeal cross-sectional area to MA and electrical stimulation of the GG in 14 propofol-anesthetized OSA patients. Measurements were undertaken at multiple levels of CPAP, enabling calculation of the critical closing pressure (Pcrit), upstream resistance (Rus), and pharyngeal compliance. GG stimulation, MA, and the combination of both shifted the pressure:flow relationships toward higher flow levels, resulting in progressively lower Pcrit (from baseline of 2.9 +/- 2.2 to 0.9 +/- 2.5, -1.4 +/- 2.9, and -4.2 +/- 3.3 cmH(2)O, respectively), without significant change in Rus. DeltaPcrit during GG stimulation was significantly larger during MA than under baseline conditions (-2.8 +/- 1.4 vs. -2.0 +/- 1.4 cmH(2)O, P = 0.011). Combining the effect of GG stimulation with MA lowered Pcrit below 0 in all patients and restored pharyngeal patency to a level that enabled flow above the hypopnea level in 10/14 of the patients. Velopharyngeal compliance was not affected by either manipulation. We conclude that the combined effect of MA and GG stimulation is additive and may act in synergy, preventing substantial flow limitation of the relaxed pharynx in most OSA patients.

Levofloxacin-induced delirium.

An 83-year-old man was admitted for right lower lobe pneumonia which did not improve after a 5-day outpatient treatment with amoxicillin/clavulinate and clarithromycin. An empiric treatment with levofloxacin was started with a significant improvement after 24 h of this treatment. On the third day of hospitalization, delirium developed, while the patient was afebrile and with normal blood oxygenation. Treatment with levofloxacin was stopped, and a complete resolution of the patient's delirium was observed 2 days later. To the best of our knowledge, this is the third case of levofloxacin-induced delirium described in the medical literature.

[Electrical stimulation of the genioglossus to improve pharyngeal patency in obstructive sleep apnea: comparison of results obtained during sleep and anesthesia].

Contraction of the geniogtossus (GG) has been shown to improve upper airway patency in patients with sleep apnea during sleep and anesthesia. However, a large variability in response exists, requiring selection of adequate patients if GG stimulation should be used as a treatment modality. In the present study, we compared responses in upper airway pressure-flow relationships to electrical stimulation of the GG in patients with obstructive sleep apnea during sleep and mild anesthesia. Nine patients studied during sleep were matched with 9 patients evaluated during propofol anesthesia. Stimulation was performed with fine wire electrodes inserted near the mandibular insertion of the GG. Airflow was measured at muLtiple levels of CPAP, and upper airway collapsibility was defined by the pressure below which airflow ceased (the "critical" pressure, Pcrit). ELectrical stimulation shifted the pressure-flow reLationships toward higher flow Levels in all patients over the entire range of CPAP applied. Pcrit decreased significantly during stimulation-induced contraction of the GG, and similarly in the patients evaluated during sleep and during anesthesia (from 1.6 +/- 2.0 to -1.6 +/- 2.5, and from 1.8 +/- 1.8 to -0.2 +/- 1.8 cmH2O, during steep and anesthesia, respectively, p < 0.01, without a significant change in upstream resistance. Our findings imply that responses in Pcrit to electrical stimulation of the main tongue protrusor during propofoL anesthesia may reflect those observed during sleep, and evaluation of the response of sleep apnea patients to GG stimulation can be evaluated during short anesthesia.