Treatment of muscle-invasive and advanced bladder cancer in 2020.

Bladder cancer accounts for nearly 170,000 deaths worldwide annually. For over 4 decades, the systemic management of muscle-invasive and advanced bladder cancer has primarily consisted of platinum-based chemotherapy. Over the past 10 years, innovations in sequencing technologies have led to rapid genomic characterization of bladder cancer, deepening our understanding of bladder cancer pathogenesis and exposing potential therapeutic vulnerabilities. On the basis of its high mutational burden, immune checkpoint inhibitors were investigated in advanced bladder cancer, revealing durable responses in a subset of patients. These agents are now approved for several indications and highlight the changing treatment landscape of advanced bladder cancer. In addition, commonly expressed molecular targets were leveraged to develop targeted therapies, such as fibroblast growth factor receptor inhibitors and antibody-drug conjugates. The molecular characterization of bladder cancer and the development of novel therapies also have stimulated investigations into optimizing treatment approaches for muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Herein, the authors review the history of muscle-invasive and advanced bladder cancer management, highlight the important molecular characteristics of bladder cancer, describe the major advances in treatment, and offer future directions for therapeutic development.

Biomarker Development Trial of Satraplatin in Patients with Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND: In the phase III SPARC trial, satraplatin, an oral platinum analogue, demonstrated anticancer activity in men with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Repeat biopsies are uncommon in mCRPC, limiting the feasibility of tissue-based biomarkers. This phase II study sought to evaluate the feasibility and utility of blood-based biomarkers to identify platinum-sensitive mCRPC. METHODS: Patients with mCRPC who had progressed on docetaxel were enrolled at a single center from 2011 to 2013. Subjects received satraplatin 80 mg/m2 by mouth daily on days 1-5 and prednisone 5 mg PO twice daily, on a 35-day cycle. Serial peripheral blood samples were collected for biomarker assessment. RESULTS: Thirteen docetaxel-refractory mCRPC patients were enrolled, with a median age of 69 years (range 54-77 years) and median PSA of 71.7 ng/mL (range 0.04-3057). Four of 13 patients (31%) responded to satraplatin (defined as a PSA decline of ≥30%). Responders demonstrated improved time to disease progression (206 vs. 35 days, HR 0.26, 95% CI, 0.02-0.24, P = .003). A 6-gene peripheral blood RNA signature and serum tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) levels were assessed as biomarkers, but neither was significantly associated with response to satraplatin. CONCLUSION: In this small series, one-third of mCRPC patients responded to platinum-based chemotherapy. Peripheral blood biomarker measurement is feasible in mCRPC, though the biomarkers we investigated were not associated with platinum response. Other biomarkers, such as DNA damage repair mutations, should be evaluated.

Global DNA methylation of WTC prostate cancer tissues show signature differences compared to non-exposed cases.

There is increased incidence of prostate cancer (PC) among World Trade Center (WTC)-exposed responders and community members, with preliminary evidence suggestive of more aggressive disease. While previous research is supportive of differences in DNA methylation and gene expression as a consequence of WTC exposure, as measured in blood of healthy individuals, the epigenetics of WTC PC tissues has yet to be explored. Patients were recruited from the World Trade Center Health Program. Non-WTC PC samples were frequency matched on age, race/ethnicity and Gleason score. Bisulfite-treated DNA was extracted from tumor tissue blocks and used to assess global DNA methylation with the MethylationEPIC BeadChip. Differential and pathway enrichment analyses were conducted. RNA from the same tumor blocks was used for gene expression analysis to further support DNA methylation findings. Methylation data were generated for 28 samples (13 WTC and 15 non-WTC). Statistically significant differences in methylation were observed for 3,586 genes; on average WTC samples were statistically significantly more hypermethylated (P = 0.04131). Pathway enrichment analysis revealed hypermethylation in epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), hypoxia, mitotic spindle, TNFA signaling via NFKB, WNT signaling, and TGF beta signaling pathways in WTC compared to non-WTC samples. The androgen response, G2M and MYC target pathways were hypomethylated. These results correlated well with RNA gene expression. In conclusion, long-term epigenic changes associated with WTC dust exposure were observed in PC tissues. These occurred in genes of critical pathways, likely increasing prostate tumorigenesis potential. This warrants analysis of larger WTC groups and other cancer types.

Phase II Clinical and Translational Study of Everolimus ± Paclitaxel as First-Line Therapy in Cisplatin-Ineligible Advanced Urothelial Carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Treatment options have been historically limited for cisplatin-ineligible patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma (UC). Given the need for alternatives to platinum-based chemotherapy, including non-chemotherapy regimens for patients with both impaired renal function and borderline functional status, in 2010 (prior to the immune checkpoint blockade era in metastatic UC), we initiated a phase II trial to test the activity of everolimus or everolimus plus paclitaxel in the cisplatin-ineligible setting. METHODS: This was an open-label phase II trial conducted within the US-based Hoosier Cancer Research Network (ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT01215136). Patients who were cisplatin-ineligible with previously untreated advanced UC were enrolled. Patients with both impaired renal function and poor performance status were enrolled into cohort 1; patients with either were enrolled into cohort 2. Patients received everolimus 10 mg daily alone (cohort 1) or with paclitaxel 80 mg/m2 on days 1, 8, and 15 of each 28-day cycle (cohort 2). The primary outcome was clinical benefit at 4 months. Secondary outcomes were adverse events, progression-free survival (PFS), and 1-year overall survival (OS). Exploratory endpoints included genomic correlates of outcomes. The trial was not designed for comparison between cohorts. RESULTS: A total of 36 patients were enrolled from 2010 to 2018 (cohort 1, N = 7; cohort 2, N = 29); the trial was terminated due to slow accrual. Clinical benefit at 4 months was attained by 0 (0%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0-41.0%) patients in cohort 1 and 11 patients (37.9%, 95% CI 20.7-57.7%) in cohort 2. Median PFS was 2.33 (95% CI 1.81-Inf) months in cohort 1 and 5.85 (95% CI 2.99-8.61) months in cohort 2. Treatment was discontinued due to adverse events for 2 patients (29%) in cohort 1 and 11 patients (38%) in cohort 2. Molecular alterations in microtubule associated genes may be associated with treatment benefit but this requires further testing. CONCLUSION: Everolimus plus paclitaxel demonstrates clinical activity in cisplatin-ineligible patients with metastatic UC, although the specific contribution of everolimus cannot be delineated. Patients with both impaired renal function and borderline functional status may be difficult to enroll to prospective trials. (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT01215136).

Targeted Next-Generation Sequencing Reveals Exceptionally High Rates of Molecular Driver Mutations in Never-Smokers With Lung Adenocarcinoma.

INTRODUCTION: Historically, high rates of actionable driver mutations have been reported in never-smokers with lung adenocarcinoma (ADC). In the era of modern, comprehensive cancer mutation sequencing, this relationship necessitates a more detailed analysis. METHODS: All Mount Sinai patients between January 1, 2015, and June 1, 2020, with a diagnosis of ADC of any stage with known smoking status who received genomic testing were included. Most patients were analyzed using the Sema4 hotspot panel or the Oncomine Comprehensive Assay version 3 next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel conducted at Sema4. Patients were considered fully genotyped if they were comprehensively analyzed for alterations in EGFR, KRAS, MET, ALK, RET, ROS1, BRAF, NTRK1-3, and ERBB2, otherwise they were considered partially genotyped. RESULTS: Two hundred and thirty-six never-smokers and 671 smokers met the above criteria. Of the never-smokers, 201 (85%) had a driver mutation with 167 (71%) considered actionable (ie, those with US Food and Drug Administration-approved agents). Among smokers, 439 (65%) had an identified driver mutation with 258 (38%) actionable (P < .0001). When comprehensively sequenced, 95% (70/74) of never-smokers had a driver mutation with 78% (58/74) actionable; whereas, for smokers, 75% (135/180) had a driver with only 47% (74/180) actionable (P < .0001). Within mutations groups, EGFR G719X and KRAS G12Cs were more common to smokers. For stage IV patients harboring EGFR-mutant tumors treated with EGFR-directed therapies, never-smokers had significantly improved OS compared to smokers (hazard ratio = 2.71; P = .025). In multivariable analysis, Asian ancestry and female sex remained significant predictors of (1) OS in stage IV patients and (2) likelihood of harboring a receptor of fusion-based driver. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive NGS revealed driver alterations in 95% of never-smokers, with the majority having an associated therapy available. All efforts should be exhausted to identify or rule out the presence of an actionable driver mutation in all metastatic lung ADC.

Impact of body mass index on the efficacy of aromatase inhibitors in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Higher levels of estrogen in obese patients may lead to incomplete inhibition by aromatase inhibitors (AIs). The aim of this study was to determine the impact of body mass index (BMI) on efficacy of AIs in patients with metastatic hormone receptor (HR)-positive breast cancer (BC). METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of all female patients with metastatic HR-positive BC on an AI in first- or second-line settings and seen at our academic institution between 2001 and 2020. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS), defined as the time from start of AI to disease progression or death from any cause. RESULTS: We identified 219 patients who had received an AI in the first- or second-line settings for metastatic HR-positive BC and with documented information on BMI. Of the 219 patients, 56% (123) had a low BMI (defined as < 27 kg/m2) and 44% (96) had a high BMI (≥ 27 kg/m2). The median PFS was 21.9 months (95% CI 14.5 to 28.4) in the low BMI group versus 20.2 months (95% CI 14.3 to 27.5) in the high BMI group (p = 0.73). CONCLUSION: While BMI influences efficacy of AIs in the adjuvant setting, our results suggest that in the metastatic setting, BMI may not impact the efficacy of AIs. This discrepancy could be due to other differences in disease characteristics that make complete aromatase inhibition more important in the adjuvant setting when disease burden is the lowest.

Consensus report: Definition and interpretation of remission in type 2 diabetes.

Improvement of glucose levels into the normal range can occur in some people living with diabetes, either spontaneously or after medical interventions, and in some cases can persist after withdrawal of glucose-lowering pharmacotherapy. Such sustained improvement may now be occurring more often due to newer forms of treatment. However, terminology for describing this process and objective measures for defining it are not well established, and the long-term risks versus benefits of its attainment are not well understood. To update prior discussions of this issue, an international expert group was convened by the American Diabetes Association to propose nomenclature and principles for data collection and analysis, with the goal of establishing a base of information to support future clinical guidance. This group proposed "remission" as the most appropriate descriptive term, and HbA1c <6.5% (48 mmol/mol) measured at least 3 months after cessation of glucose-lowering pharmacotherapy as the usual diagnostic criterion. The group also made suggestions for active observation of individuals experiencing a remission and discussed further questions and unmet needs regarding predictors and outcomes of remission.

Factors that guide selection among androgen receptor inhibitors in patients with nonmetastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer affecting men in the United States. A significant proportion of men have nonmetastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), in which biochemical progression is evidenced by rising levels of prostate-specific antigen without radiographic progression in the setting of castrate levels of testosterone. Historically, the preferred treatment for these patients has been observation and continued treatment with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). The standard of care has recently evolved to include the addition of androgen receptor (AR) inhibitors to ADT. The US Food and Drug Administration has approved 3 next-generation AR inhibitors for nonmetastatic CRPC: apalutamide, enzalutamide, and darolutamide. These agents were approved based on data from phase 3 randomized trials. There is now a significant amount of data from these trials. All 3 agents improve metastasis-free survival and overall survival. Selection of treatment can be guided by factors such as the patient's overall health and frailty, potential drug-drug interactions, and the safety profile associated with each agent.

Consensus report: definition and interpretation of remission in type 2 diabetes.

Improvement of glucose levels into the normal range can occur in some people living with diabetes, either spontaneously or after medical interventions, and in some cases can persist after withdrawal of glucose-lowering pharmacotherapy. Such sustained improvement may now be occurring more often due to newer forms of treatment. However, terminology for describing this process and objective measures for defining it are not well established, and the long-term risks vs benefits of its attainment are not well understood. To update prior discussions of this issue, an international expert group was convened by the American Diabetes Association to propose nomenclature and principles for data collection and analysis, with the goal of establishing a base of information to support future clinical guidance. This group proposed 'remission' as the most appropriate descriptive term, and HbA1c <48 mmol/mol (6.5%) measured at least 3 months after cessation of glucose-lowering pharmacotherapy as the usual diagnostic criterion. The group also made suggestions for active observation of individuals experiencing a remission and discussed further questions and unmet needs regarding predictors and outcomes of remission.

Analysis of Real-World Data to Investigate the Impact of Race and Ethnicity on Response to Programmed Cell Death-1 and Programmed Cell Death-Ligand 1 Inhibitors in Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancers.

BACKGROUND: Racial disparities among clinical trial participants present a challenge to assess whether trial results can be generalized into patients representing diverse races and ethnicities. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of race and ethnicity on treatment response in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (aNSCLC) treated with programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) or programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors through analysis of real-world data (RWD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of 11,138 patients with lung cancer treated at hospitals within the Mount Sinai Health System was performed. Patients with confirmed aNSCLC who received anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment were analyzed for clinical outcomes. Our cohort included 249 patients with aNSCLC who began nivolumab, pembrolizumab, or atezolizumab treatment between November 2014 and December 2018. Time-to-treatment discontinuation (TTD) and overall survival (OS) were the analyzed clinical endpoints. RESULTS: After a median follow-up of 14.8 months, median TTD was 7.8 months (95% confidence interval, 5.4-not estimable [NE]) in 75 African American patients versus 4.6 (2.4-7.2) in 110 White patients (hazard ratio [HR], 0.63). Median OS was not reached (18.4-NE) in African American patients versus 11.6 months (9.7-NE) in White patients (HR, 0.58). Multivariable Cox regression conducted with potential confounders confirmed longer TTD (adjusted HR, 0.65) and OS (adjusted HR, 0.60) in African American versus White patients. Similar real-world response rate (42.6% vs. 43.5%) and disease control rate (59.6% vs. 56.5%) were observed in the African American and White patient populations. Further investigation revealed the African American patient group had lower incidence (14.7%) of putative hyperprogressive diseases (HPD) upon anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment than the White patient group (24.5%). CONCLUSION: Analysis of RWD showed longer TTD and OS in African American patients with aNSCLC treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. Lower incidence of putative HPD is a possible reason for the favorable outcomes in this patient population. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: There is a significant underrepresentation of minority patients in randomized clinical trials, and this study demonstrates that real-world data can be used to investigate the impact of race and ethnicity on treatment response. In retrospective analysis of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer treated with programmed cell death-1 or programmed cell death-ligand 1 inhibitors, African American patients had significantly longer time-to-treatment discontinuation and longer overall survival. Analysis of real-world data can yield clinical insights and establish a more complete picture of medical interventions in routine clinical practice.

Advanced Prostate Cancer: AUA/ASTRO/SUO Guideline PART II.

PURPOSE: The summary presented herein represents Part II of the two-part series dedicated to Advanced Prostate Cancer: AUA/ASTRO/SUO Guideline discussing prognostic and treatment recommendations for patients with castration-resistant disease. Please refer to Part I for discussion of the management of patients with biochemical recurrence without metastatic disease after exhaustion of local treatment options as well as those with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer. RESULTS: The Advanced Prostate Cancer Panel created evidence- and consensus-based guideline statements to aid clinicians in the management of patients with advanced prostate cancer. Such statements are summarized in figure 1[Figure: see text] and detailed herein. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The systematic review utilized to inform this guideline was conducted by an independent methodological consultant. A research librarian conducted searches in Ovid MEDLINE (1998 to January Week 5 2019), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (through December 2018), and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2005 through February 6, 2019). An updated search was conducted prior to publication through January 20, 2020. The methodology team supplemented searches of electronic databases with the studies included in the prior AUA review and by reviewing reference lists of relevant articles. CONCLUSIONS: This guideline attempts to improve a clinician's ability to treat patients diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer. Continued research and publication of high-quality evidence from future trials will be essential to improve the level of care for these patients.

Advanced Prostate Cancer: AUA/ASTRO/SUO Guideline PART I.

PURPOSE: The summary presented herein represents Part I of the two-part series dedicated to Advanced Prostate Cancer: AUA/ASTRO/SUO Guideline discussing prognostic and treatment recommendations for patients with biochemical recurrence without metastatic disease after exhaustion of local treatment options as well as those with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer. Please refer to Part II for discussion of the management of castration-resistant disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The systematic review utilized to inform this guideline was conducted by an independent methodological consultant. A research librarian conducted searches in Ovid MEDLINE (1998 to January Week 5 2019), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (through December 2018), and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2005 through February 6, 2019). An updated search was conducted prior to publication through January 20, 2020. The methodology team supplemented searches of electronic databases with the studies included in the prior AUA review and by reviewing reference lists of relevant articles. RESULTS: The Advanced Prostate Cancer Panel created evidence- and consensus-based guideline statements to aid clinicians in the management of patients with advanced prostate cancer. Such statements are summarized in figure 1[Figure: see text] and detailed herein. CONCLUSIONS: This guideline attempts to improve a clinician's ability to treat patients diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer. Continued research and publication of high-quality evidence from future trials will be essential to improve the level of care for these patients.

Clinical development of novel therapeutics for castration-resistant prostate cancer: historic challenges and recent successes.

There have been more drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer in the past 3 years than in the prior 3 decades, with additional drugs on the verge of approval based on the results of recently reported randomized trials. While an improvement in the understanding of the pathogenesis of castration-resistant prostate cancer has undeniably accelerated the transition of novel approaches from "bench to bedside," the recent successes in the treatment of prostate cancer are also a result of the efforts of clinical investigators to redefine the framework in which drugs for castration-resistant disease are evaluated. This review will explore the shifting paradigm in drug development for castration-resistant prostate cancer over the past several decades, and highlight how new definitions, trial designs, and endpoints have facilitated the emergence of new therapies for this challenging disease.

Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: AUA Guideline Amendment 2018.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this amendment is to incorporate newly-published literature to provide a rational basis for the management of patients with non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The original systematic review and meta-analysis of the published literature yielded 303 studies published from 1996 through 2013. This review informed the majority of the guideline statements from the 2013 guideline. Clinical Principles and Expert Opinions were used for guideline statements lacking sufficient evidence. The guideline was subsequently amended in April 2014 and March 2015. The current 2018 amendment search yielded 770 references with 47 studies eventually providing relevant data. The resulting amendment focuses on the incorporation of information relating to the treatment of patients with non-metastatic CRPC. RESULTS: Guideline statements based on six Index Patients developed to represent the most common scenarios encountered in clinical practice were amended appropriately. The additional literature provided the basis for an update of current supporting text as well as the incorporation of new guideline statements for asymptomatic non-metastatic CRPC. CONCLUSIONS: Given the rapidly evolving nature of this field, this guideline should be used in conjunction with recent systematic literature reviews and an understanding of individual patients' treatment goals. Shared decision-making incorporating patients' preferences and personal goals should be implemented when choosing management strategies. This guideline will be continually updated as new literature emerges.

The association between germline BRCA2 variants and sensitivity to platinum-based chemotherapy among men with metastatic prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer 2 (BRCA2)-associated breast and ovarian cancers are sensitive to platinum-based chemotherapy. It is unknown whether BRCA2-associated prostate cancer responds favorably to such treatment. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of a single-institution cohort of men with castration-resistant, metastatic prostate cancer was performed to determine the association between carrier status of pathogenic BRCA2 germline variants and prostate-specific antigen response to carboplatin-based chemotherapy. From 2001 through 2015, 8081 adult men with prostate cancer who had a consultation and/or underwent treatment at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute provided blood samples and consented to analyses of biologic material and clinical records. A subgroup of 141 men received at least 2 doses of carboplatin and docetaxel for castration-resistant disease (94% were also taxane refractory). These patients were categorized according to the absence or presence of pathogenic germline mutations in BRCA2 based on DNA sequencing from whole blood. The primary outcome was the response rate to carboplatin/docetaxel chemotherapy, defined according to a decline in prostate-specific antigen that exceeded 50% within 12 weeks of initiating this regimen. Associations between BRCA2 mutation status and response to carboplatin-based chemotherapy were tested using the Fisher exact test, with a 2-sided P value < .05 as the threshold for significance. RESULTS: Pathogenic germline BRCA2 variants were observed in 8 of 141 men (5.7%; 95% confidence interval, 2.5%-10.9%). Six of 8 BRCA2 carriers (75%) experienced prostate-specific antigen declines >50% within 12 weeks, compared with 23 of 133 noncarriers (17%; absolute difference, 58%; 95% confidence interval, 27%-88%; P < .001). Prostate cancer cell lines functionally corroborated these clinical findings. CONCLUSIONS: BRCA2-associated, castration-resistant prostate cancer is associated with a higher likelihood of response to carboplatin-based chemotherapy than non-BRCA2-associated prostate cancer. Cancer 2017;123:3532-9. © 2017 American Cancer Society.

Sixty years of CA: a cancer journal for clinicians.

The first issue of CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians was published in November of 1950. On the 60th anniversary of that date, we briefly review several seminal contributions to oncology and cancer control published in our journal during its first decade.

A 2-Gene Panel Derived From Prostate Cancer-Enhanced Transcripts in Whole Blood Is Prognostic for Survival and Predicts Treatment Benefit in Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND: To determine a prognostic model derived from prostate cancer-enhanced transcripts in whole blood of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) patients and explore its applicability as a surrogate of treatment response. METHODS: Six out of twenty-three selected transcripts were identified as specific for detection of metastatic prostate cancer cells in peripheral blood using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Their prognostic value was explored in whole blood samples of a training cohort (n = 22 CRPC patients, New York, USA). A resulting 2-gene panel (2GP) including KLK2 and TMPRSS2 was validated in an independent cohort with pre- and post-treatment blood draws after 9-16 weeks of systemic treament (n = 86 CRPC patients, Munich, Germany). Overall survival (OS), prostate-specific antigen progression-free survival (PSA-PFS), and clinical PFS were analyzed. Kaplan-Meier and cox regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: An unfavorable 2GP (≥1 marker positive) identified patients with poor survival (median OS 10.0 months [95%CI 5.7-14.2] vs. not reached; P = 0.023). This was validated in an independent cohort at pre-treatment (median OS 7.8 [95%CI 6.5-9.2] vs. 17.3 months [95%CI 10.7-23.8]; P = 0.004) and post-treatment blood draw (median OS 5.0 [95%CI 0.0-10.0] vs. 18.0 months [95%CI 9.5-26.6]; P = 0.003). The 2GP independently predicted OS on multivariate analysis (hazard ratio 2.1 [95%CI 1.1-4.0]; P = 0.034) and performed better than PSA decline at correlation with OS. Conversion to favorable 2GP during treatment correlated with improved OS (7.8 to 20.9 months), PSA-PFS (2.8 to 12.0 months), and clinical PFS (4.6 to 8.0 months). CONCLUSIONS: The established 2GP is prognostic for survival at pre- and post-treatment blood draw in CRPC patients and conversion to favorable 2GP predicts treatment benefit. Prostate 76:1160-1168, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.