Triterpenoids and Their Glycosides from Glinus Oppositifolius with Antifungal Activities against Microsporum Gypseum and Trichophyton Rubrum.

Four new triterpenoids, 3ß,12ß,16ß,21ß,22-pentahydroxyhopane (1), 12ß,16ß,21ß,22-tetrahydroxyhopan-3-one (2), 3-oxo-olean-12-ene-28,30-dioic acid (3), and 3ß-hydroxyoleana-11,13(18)-diene-28,30-dioic acid 30-methyl ester (4); 21 new triterpenoid saponins, glinusopposides A-U (5-25); and 12 known compounds (26-37) were isolated from the whole plants of Glinus oppositifolius. The structures of the new compounds were elucidated based on the analysis of one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS) data. All compounds from the plants were measured for antifungal activities against Microsporum gypseum and Trichophyton rubrum. Glinusopposide B (6), glinusopposide Q (21), glinusopposide T (24), and glinusopposide U (25) showed strong inhibitory activities against M. gypseum (MIC50 7.1, 6.7, 6.8, and 11.1 µM, respectively) and T. rubrum (MIC50 14.3, 13.4, 11.9, and 13.0 µM, respectively). For those active compounds with an oleanane skeleton, glycosylation (21-26) or oxidation (3) of 3-OH was helpful in increasing the activity; replacement of the 30-methyl group (29) by a carboxymethyl group (26) enhanced the activity; the presence of 11,13(18) double bonds (20) decreased the activity.

Political transition and emergent forest-conservation issues in Myanmar.

Political and economic transitions have had substantial impacts on forest conservation. Where transitions are underway or anticipated, historical precedent and methods for systematically assessing future trends should be used to anticipate likely threats to forest conservation and design appropriate and prescient policy measures to counteract them. Myanmar is transitioning from an authoritarian, centralized state with a highly regulated economy to a more decentralized and economically liberal democracy and is working to end a long-running civil war. With these transitions in mind, we used a horizon-scanning approach to assess the 40 emerging issues most affecting Myanmar's forests, including internal conflict, land-tenure insecurity, large-scale agricultural development, demise of state timber enterprises, shortfalls in government revenue and capacity, and opening of new deforestation frontiers with new roads, mines, and hydroelectric dams. Averting these threats will require, for example, overhauling governance models, building capacity, improving infrastructure- and energy-project planning, and reforming land-tenure and environmental-protection laws. Although challenges to conservation in Myanmar are daunting, the political transition offers an opportunity for conservationists and researchers to help shape a future that enhances Myanmar's social, economic, and environmental potential while learning and applying lessons from other countries. Our approach and results are relevant to other countries undergoing similar transitions.

Traditional medicinal plants used by the Mon people in Myanmar.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Myanmar's Mon people largely depend on a traditional medical system for health care, however, information about their medical plants is rare in the current literature. In this first ethnobotanical study of Mon traditional medicinal plants (MTMs), we attempt to answer three research questions: 1) What species are used as MTMs by the Mon people and what diseases can be treated with these MTMs? 2) What are the general characteristics of these MTMs? 3) Which species and their usages have high consensus of knowledge? AIM OF THE STUDY: We aimed (1) to document both the diversity of medicinal plants used by the Mon people and their knowledge of the therapeutic usages of these plants; and (2) to quantitatively identify the most well-known medicinal plant species and prevalent diseases treated by these species, and to evaluate the status of scientific research and application for each of these species. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethnobotanical surveys and interviews were carried out in 10 villages in four townships of Mon State, Myanmar in 2018. Data were collected from interviews with 131 informants, chosen via the snowball sampling method. Therapeutic uses of medicinal plants were categorized according to the ICPC-2 standard. Voucher specimens of plant species were collected and identified by experts. To evaluate the consensus of knowledge, we applied use reports (URs) using the R package of ethnobotanyR. RESULTS: In total, we recorded 158 medicinal plant species belonging to 64 families as being used by the Mon people, with 13 species being newly recorded as medicinal plants in Myanmar. The people listed 78 therapeutic uses for these plants, which could be classified into 16 ICPC-2 disease categories. Digestive, urological and respiratory diseases ranked as the most prevalent diseases based on use reports. Fabaceae was the most represented family and the leaf was the most commonly used plant part. Decoction and oral administration ranked top in preparation and administration methods, respectively. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr, the introduced species Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob., Mimosa pudica L., Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H. Ohashi, and Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC were the five most cited medicinal plant species, and were used to treat dysuria, cuts and wounds, cough, diabetes and gall stones respectively, with high consensus. CONCLUSION: The Mon people of Myanmar have a rich and diverse knowledge of traditional medicinal plants. The list of medicinal plants in Myanmar can be renewed, with the addition of 13 species. MTMs still function as an important component of the health care of the Mon people in Myanmar, and a systematic documentation of the local knowledge of MTMs would be of great value in the future. Resource monitoring, phytochemical and pharmacological research and evidence-based drug development are suggested to promote the use of MTMs and aid drug discovery.

The uses of fig (Ficus) by five ethnic minority communities in Southern Shan State, Myanmar.

BACKGROUND: Most regions of Myanmar fall within the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot and are threatened with biodiversity loss. Development of a comprehensive framework for sustainable development is crucial. Figs are ecological keystone species within these regions and are also important for traditional spiritual food and health uses, which often have accompanying conservation practices. The traditional use and management of figs may offer clues to help guide the development of national policies for sustainable development. In this study, we showcase the rich ethnobotanical knowledge as well as the variety of collection and conservation practices of figs among five ethnic groups in Southern Shan State. METHODS: We performed both key informant and semi-structured interviews with 114 informants from five ethnic groups. Their uses for figs were categorized according to local practices and recipes. Informants were asked about trends in conservation status over the past 10 years and any conservation-related customs and practices. Data were analyzed quantitatively with common quantitative ethnobotany indices, the use report (UR) and use value (UV). RESULTS: Informants reported the uses of eight fig species (Ficus auricularta, F. concinna, F. geniculata, F. hispida, F. racemosa, F. religiosa, F. semicordata, and F. virens). F. geniculata and F. virens were most useful (UR = 228) and were used by all five ethnic groups, corresponding to a high use value (UV = 2). Treatments for 16 diseases were reported from seven species. Household consumption, economic and sacred uses were accompanied by sustainable practices of harvest and protection. Traditional taboos, in situ and ex situ conservation were common especially for highly demanded species (F. geniculata and F. virens) and the sacred fig F. religiosa. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that figs are useful for food (all informants) and medicine (13.16% of the informants) in the study area. Traditional taboos, in situ and ex situ conservation practices help to maintain sustainable utilization of locally important figs. This is an early contribution to the traditional knowledge of edible figs. Although similar uses have been reported in neighboring countries for seven of the fig species, the ethnobotanical use of F. concinna is novel.

Chemical Constituents from Ethanoic Extracts of the Aerial Parts of Leea aequata L., a Traditional Folk Medicine of Myanmar.

We aimed at reporting the chemical constituents and antimicrobial activities of Leea aequata L., a traditional folk medicine used in Myanmar for the treatment of wounds and skin diseases. A new neolignan, (7S,8R)-9'-O-acetylcedrusin (1), a new lactam, (3S,4S)-4-chloro-3-hydroxypiperidin-2-one (2), along with 21 known compounds, including five lignans (3-7), four flavonoid glycosides (8-11), and others (12-23), were isolated from the ethanoic extract of the aerial parts of L. aequata. The structures of the new compounds were determined by NMR, MS, and ECD spectra. For all the antimicrobial tests of the 23 compounds, only 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid ethyl ester (17) showed weak inhibitory activities against Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica.

New Amides and Phenylpropanoid Glucosides from the Fruits of Piper retrofractum.

Two new amides (E)-N-cinnamoyl-2-methoxypiperidine (1) and (R)-1-(2-oxopyrrolidin-3-yl)-5,6-dihydropyridin-2(1H)-one (2), four new amide glucosides, retrofractosides A-D (3-6), and two new phenylpropanoid glucosides, retrofractosides E (7) and F (8), together with 24 known compounds (9-32) were isolated from the fruits of Piper retrofractum. The chemical structures of these new compounds were elucidated based on extensive spectroscopic analysis. All of these isolates (1-32) were evaluated for inhibitory activity against mouse platelet aggregation induced by the peptide AYPGKF-NH2. (E)-N-(Tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)cinnamamide (9) showed a weak inhibitory effect, with an inhibition ratio of 52.0% at a concentration of 150 µM.

Taxonomic studies of Glochidion (Phyllanthaceae) from the Indo-China Peninsula (I): G. shanense, a new species from Myanmar.

Based on morphological studies performed on live plants in the field and specimens deposited in herbaria, a new species, Glochidion shanense Gang Yao & Shixiao Luo (Phyllantheae, Phyllanthaceae), is here described and illustrated. The species is morphologically most similar to G. ellipticum Wight, but can be distinguished from the latter by having hairy branchlets, longer pedicels, uniseriate and narrowly triangular sepals of female flowers, 4-5-locular ovaries, stout and cylindric persistent style on fruits.

Investigation on the Antibacterial and Anti-T3SS Activity of Traditional Myanmar Medicinal Plants.

Myanmar has a rich pool of, but less known, medicinal plants with traditional knowledge. In this study, we aimed to investigate the inhibitory activity of traditional Myanmar medicinal plants against the type III secretion system (T3SS) of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium UK-1 χ8956 and the intestinal disease-caused by microbes including S. enterica serovar Typhimurium UK-1 χ8956, Proteusbacillus vulgaris CPCC 160013, Escherichia coli CICC 10003, and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. The EtOH extracts of 93 samples were used to screen the inhibitory activities against the secretion of T3SS effector proteins SipA/B/C/D of S. enterica and the antibacterial activity against S. enterica, P. vulgaris, E. coli, and S. aureus. Out of 71 crude drugs traditionally used, 18 were proofed to be effective either on the growth inhibition of tested bacteria and/or as inhibitors for the T3SS. The EtOH extracts of five plants, Luvunga scandens (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight & Arn. (My7), Myrica nagi Thunb. (My11), Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Fleming (My21), Thymus vulgaris L. (My49), and Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet (My104), showed potent inhibitory activities against the secretion of T3SS proteins SipA/B/C/D of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium UK-1 χ 8956. Mansonia gagei J.R.Drumm (My3) and Mesua ferrea (Roxb.) L. (My10) showed strong antibacterial activities against P. vulgaris and S. aureus. This study provided the first scientific evidence of T3SS prohibiting and antibacterial properties for the traditional knowledge in Myanmar of using plants as medicines for treating infections and gastrointestinal disease. Further researches are proposed to discover the active chemical compounds and mechanism of L. scandens (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight & Arn, M. nagi Thunb., T. citrina Roxb. ex Fleming, T. vulgaris L., and C. bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet as antivirulence drugs and the potential of M. gagei J.R.Drumm and M. ferrea L. as new broad spectrum plant antibiotics.