Evaluation of PEG-b-polycarbonates self-assemblies containing azobenzene or coumarin moieties as nanocarriers using paclitaxel as a model hydrophobic drug.

The work assesses the performance of nanocarriers from amphiphilic block copolymers with functional azobenzene or coumarin moieties for delivery of paclitaxel. Placlitaxel was encapsulated by the nanoprecipitation method. Characterisations were performed by DLS, TEM, Zeta potential and HPLC. Cell viability was investigated in HeLa and Huh-5-2-cell lines. Coumarin-containing polymeric micelles (Dh = 26 ± 2 nm, PDI = 0.28, ζ = ‒22.9 ± 3.6 mV) with 11.2 ± 0.5%w/w drug loading showed enhanced cytotoxicity in HeLa cells (IC50 < 0.02 nM) compared to free paclitaxel (IC50 = 0.17 ± 0.02 nM). Azobenzene-containing polymeric vesicles (Dh = 390 ± 20 nm, PDI = 0.24, ζ = ‒33.2 ± 5.0 mV) with a 6.8 ± 0.4%w/w drug loading showed increased cytotoxicity under 530 nm light (IC50 = 0.0114 ± 0.00033 nM) in HeLa cells due to a stimulated delivery of paclitaxel. Effectivity of these block copolymers as paclitaxel nanovectors and light stimulated release has been demonstrated.

Cyclotriphosphazenes as Scaffolds for the Synthesis of Metallomesogens.

(Amino)cyclotriphosphazenes have been used as new scaffolds for the synthesis of silver(I) metallomesogens. Two cyclotriphosphazenes, [N3P3(NHCy)6] (phos-1) and nongem-trans-[N3P3(NHCy)3(NMe2)3] (phos-2), were reacted with the silver complex having a pro-mesogenic ligand, [Ag(OTf)L] (L = CNC6H4{OC(O)C6H2(3,4,5-(OC10H21)3)}-4; OTf = OSO2CF3), in different molar ratios, 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3, to give two series of cationic metallophosphazenes, [N3P3(NHCy)6{AgL}n](TfO)n (phos-1.n) and nongem-trans-[N3P3(NHCy)3(NMe2)3{AgL}n](TfO)n (phos-2.n) with n = 1, 2, or 3. The chemical structure of these compounds, deduced from spectroscopic techniques, was in accordance with coordination of the silver fragments "AgL" to nitrogen atoms of the phosphazene ring, whereby their number n depends on the molar ratio used. Despite the presence of the bulky substituents on the core N atoms, cyclotriphosphazenes coordinated to three "AgL" units exhibited mesomorphism at room temperature. The mesophase was characterized as columnar hexagonal according to the optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction studies. A model based on an intermolecular association in pairs of the metallocyclotriphosphazenes having three AgL units has been proposed in order to explain the mesomorphic columnar arrangement in these materials. Starting silver complex, [Ag(OTf)L], also exhibited a columnar hexagonal mesophase at room temperature.

Molecular Recognition via Hydrogen Bonding in Supramolecular Complexes: A Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Study.

We assess the assembly of supramolecular complexes by hydrogen bonding between azocompounds and a diacylaminopyridine monomer by temperature-dependent Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The electronic delocalisation in the supramolecular rings formed by multiple hydrogen bonds stabilises the complexes, which coexist with dimeric species in temperature-dependent equilibria. We show how the application of readily available molecular modelling and spectroscopic techniques can predict the stability of new supramolecular entities coexisting in equilibria, ultimately assessing the success of molecular recognition.

Chiral supramolecular organization from a sheet-like achiral gel: a study of chiral photoinduction.

Chiral photoinduction in a photoresponsive gel based on an achiral 2D architecture with high geometric anisotropy and low roughness has been investigated. Circularly polarized light (CPL) was used as a chiral source and an azobenzene chromophore was employed as a chiral trigger. The chiral photoinduction was studied by evaluating the preferential excitation of enantiomeric conformers of the azobenzene units. Crystallographic data and density functional theory (DFT) calculations show how chirality is transferred to the achiral azomaterials as a result of the combination of chiral photochemistry and supramolecular interactions. This procedure could be applied to predict and estimate chirality transfer from a chiral physical source to a supramolecular organization using different light-responsive units.

Responsive linear-dendritic block copolymers.

The combination of dendritic and linear polymeric structures in the same macromolecule opens up new possibilities for the design of block copolymers and for applications of functional polymers that have self-assembly properties. There are three main strategies for the synthesis of linear-dendritic block copolymers (LDBCs) and, in particular, the emergence of click chemistry has made the coupling of preformed blocks one of the most efficient ways of obtaining libraries of LDBCs. In these materials, the periphery of the dendron can be precisely functionalised to obtain functional LDBCs with self-assembly properties of interest in different technological areas. The incorporation of stimuli-responsive moieties gives rise to smart materials that are generally processed as self-assemblies of amphiphilic LDBCs with a morphology that can be controlled by an external stimulus. Particular emphasis is placed on light-responsive LDBCs. Furthermore, a brief review of the biomedical or materials science applications of LDBCs is presented.

A bifunctional amorphous polymer exhibiting equal linear and circular photoinduced birefringences.

The large and reversible photoinduced linear and circular birefringences in azo-compounds are at the basis of the interest in these materials, which are potentially useful for several applications. Since the onset of the linear and circular anisotropies relies on orientational processes, which typically occur on the molecular and supramolecular length scale, respectively, a circular birefringence at least one order of magnitude lower than the linear one is usually observed. Here, the synthesis and characterization of an amorphous polymer with a dimeric repeating unit containing a cyanoazobenzene and a cyanobiphenyl moiety are reported, in which identical optical linear and circular birefringences are induced for proper light dose and ellipticity. A pump-probe technique and an analytical method based on the Stokes-Mueller formalism are used to investigate the photoinduced effects and to evaluate the anisotropies. The peculiar photoresponse of the polymer makes it a good candidate for applications in smart functional devices.

New liquid crystalline materials based on two generations of dendronised cyclophosphazenes.

A divergent approach was used for the synthesis of dendritic structures based on a cyclotriphosphazene core with 12 or 24 hydroxyl groups, by starting from [N(3)P(3)(OC(6)H(4)OH-4)(6)] and using an acetal-protected 2,2-di(hydroxymethyl)propionic anhydride as the acylating agent. Hydroxyl groups in these first- and second-generation dendrimers, G1-(OH)(12) or G2-(OH)(24), were then condensed in turn with mono- or polycatenar pro-mesogenic acids to study their ability to promote self-assembly into liquid crystalline structures. Reactions were monitored by using (31)P{(1)H} and (1)H NMR spectroscopy and the chemical structure of the resulting materials was confirmed by using different spectroscopic techniques and mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The results were in accordance with monodisperse, fully functionalised cyclotriphosphazene dendrimers. Thermal and liquid crystalline properties were studied by using optical microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction. The dendrimer with 12 4-pentylbiphenyl mesogenic units gives rise to columnar rectangular organisation, whereas the one with 24 pentylbiphenyl units does not exhibit mesomorphic behaviour. In the case of materials that contain polycatenar pro-mesogenic units with two aromatic rings (A4 vs. A5), the incorporation of a short flexible spacer connected to the periphery of the dendron (acid A5) was needed to achieve mesomorphic organisation. In this case, both dendrimer generations G1 A5 and G2 A5 exhibit a hexagonal columnar mesophase.

Microfluidic Synthesis of Block Copolymer Micelles: Application as Drug Nanocarriers and as Photothermal Transductors When Loading Pd Nanosheets.

The synthesis of polymeric nanoparticles from a block copolymer based on poly(ethylene glycol) and a polymethacrylate containing the nucleobase analog 2,6-diacylaminopyridine is optimized by microfluidics to obtain homogeneous spherical micelles. Loading and delivery properties are studied using naproxen as a model. The incorporation of a Pd precursor in the polymer organic solution fed into the micromixer allows the preparation of Pd(II) precursor-polymer hybrid systems and the subsequent reduction with CO leads to the in situ synthesis of Pd nanosheets inside of the hydrophobic core of the polymeric micelles. This methodology is highly efficient to yield all polymeric nanoparticles loaded with Pd nanosheets as detected by electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The cell viability of these Pd nanosheets-containing polymeric nanoparticles is evaluated using five cell lines, showing a high cytocompatibility at the tested concentrations without detrimental effects in cell membrane and nuclei. Furthermore, the use of these hybrid polymeric nanoparticles as photothermal transductors is evaluated using near infrared as irradiation source as well as its application in photothermal therapy using different cell lines demonstrating a high efficiency in all cell cultures.

Gold(I) metallocyclophosphazenes with antibacterial potency and antitumor efficacy. Synergistic antibacterial action of a heterometallic gold and silver-cyclophosphazene.

One of the most important uses of phosphazenes today involves its biomedical applications. They can also be employed as scaffolds for the design and construction of a variety of ligands in order to coordinate them to metallic drugs. The coordination chemistry of the (amino)cyclotriphosphazene ligand, [N3P3(NHCy)6], towards gold(I) complexes has been studied. Neutral complexes, [N3P3(NHCy)6{AuX}n] (X = Cl or C6F5; n = 1 or 2) (1-4), cationic complexes, [N3P3(NHCy)6{Au(PR3)}n](NO3)n (PR3 = PPh3, PPh2Me, TPA; n = 1, 2 or 3) (6-12) [TPA = 1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane] and a heterometallic compound [N3P3(NHCy)6{Au(PPh3)}2{Ag(PPh3)}](NO3)3 (13) have been obtained and characterized by various methods including single-crystal X-ray diffraction for 7, which confirms the coordination of gold atoms to the nitrogens of the phosphazene ring. Compounds 1, 4, 6-13 were screened for in vitro cytotoxic activity against two tumor human cell lines, MCF7 (breast adenocarcinoma) and HepG2 (hepatocellular carcinoma), and for antimicrobial activity against five bacterial species including Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and Mycobacteria. Both the median inhibitory concentration (IC50) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values are among the lowest found for any gold or silver derivatives against the cell lines and particularly against the Gram-positive (S. aureus) strain and the mycobacteria used in this work. Structure-activity relationships are discussed in order to determine the influence of ancillary ligands and the number and type of metal atoms (silver or gold). Compounds 4 and 8 showed not only maximal potency on human cells but also some tumour selectivity. Remarkably, compound 13, with both gold and silver atoms, showed outstanding activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains (nanomolar range), thus having a cooperative effect between gold and silver, with MIC values which are similar or lower than those of gentamicine, ciprofloxacin and rifampicine. The broad spectrum antimicrobial efficacy of all these metallophosphazenes and particularly of heterometallic compound 13 could be very useful to obtain materials for surfaces with antimicrobial properties that are increasingly in demand.

Synthesis and characterization of maltose-based amphiphiles as supramolecular hydrogelators.

Low molecular mass amphiphilic glycolipids have been prepared by linking a maltose polar head and a hydrophobic linear chain either by amidation or copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne [3 + 2] cycloaddition. The liquid crystalline properties of these amphiphilic materials have been characterized. The influence of the chemical structure of these glycolipids on the gelation properties in water has also been studied. Glycolipids obtained by the click coupling of the two components give rise to stable hydrogels at room temperature. The fibrillar structure of supramolecular hydrogels obtained by the self-assembly of these gelators have been characterized by electron microscopy. Fibers showed some torsion, which could be related with a chiral supramolecular arrangement of amphiphiles, as confirmed by circular dichroism (CD). The sol-gel transition temperature was also determined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and NMR.

Supramolecular Functionalizable Linear-Dendritic Block Copolymers for the Preparation of Nanocarriers by Microfluidics.

Hybrid linear-dendritic block copolymers (LDBCs) having dendrons with a precise number of peripheral groups that are able to supramolecular bind functional moieties are challenging materials as versatile polymeric platforms for the preparation of functional polymeric nanocarriers. PEG2k-b-dxDAP LDBCs that are based on polyethylene glycol (PEG) as hydrophilic blocks and dendrons derived from bis-MPA having 2,6-diacylaminopyridine (DAP) units have been efficiently synthesized by the click coupling of preformed blocks, as was demonstrated by spectroscopic techniques and mass spectrometry. Self-assembly ability was first checked by nanoprecipitation. A reproducible and fast synthesis of aggregates was accomplished by microfluidics optimizing the total flow rate and phase ratio to achieve spherical micelles and/or vesicles depending on dendron generation and experimental parameters. The morphology and size of the self-assemblies were studied by TEM, Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy (cryo-TEM), and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). The cytotoxicity of aggregates synthesized by microfluidics and the influence on apoptosis and cell cycle evaluation was studied on four cell lines. The self-assemblies are not cytotoxic at doses below 0.4 mg mL-1. Supramolecular functionalization using thymine derivatives was explored for reversibly cross-linking the hydrophobic blocks. The results open new possibilities for their use as drug nanocarriers with a dynamic cross-linking to improve nanocarrier stability but without hindering disassembly to release molecular cargoes.

Self-assembly of linear-dendritic diblock copolymers: from nanofibers to polymersomes.

We report the formation of cylindrical micelles, sheet-like micelles, tubular micelles, as well as polymer vesicles by a new series of amphiphilic linear-dendritic block-copolymers (BCs). The BCs, noted as PEGm-AZOn, are composed of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains of different molecular weights as hydrophilic blocks and the first four generations of azobenzene-containing dendrons based on 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl)propionic acid (bis-MPA) as hydrophobic blocks (m represents the degree of polymerization of PEG, and n is the number of azobenzene units at the periphery of dendron). The polymeric aggregates were formed by adding water to solutions of the BCs in dioxane. The micellar dispersions in water were finally obtained by removing dioxane via dialysis against water. The morphology of the micellar self-assemblies was studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). A generation-dependent aggregation behavior was found for the series of BCs PEG45-AZOn. Core-shell structured nanofibers with an inner diameter of 8 nm were observed for the copolymer PEG45-AZO2 (hydrophilic/hydrophobic weight ratio equal to 67/33). Lyotropic liquid crystalline behavior was detected for the aqueous solution of the nanofibers. The coexistence of sheet-like aggregates and tubular micelles was detected for the copolymer PEG45-AZO8 in which the number of cyanoazobenzene units is increased to 8 (hydrophilic/hydrophobic weight ratio equal to 33/67). The tubular micelles could be intermediates in the sheet-like aggregate-to-vesicle transition. Polymer vesicles (polymersomes) with a diameter in the range 300-800 nm were observed for the copolymer PEG45-AZO16 (hydrophilic/hydrophobic weight ratio equal to 20/80). The membrane of the sheet-like aggregates, tubular micelles, and polymersomes was shown to have a bilayer structure, as revealed by cryo-TEM. UV illumination of the aqueous polymersome dispersion induced the formation of wrinkles in the vesicle membrane, thus showing that this type of polymeric aggregate is photoresponsive.

Polymeric Self-Assemblies Based on tetra-ortho-Substituted Azobenzene as Visible Light Responsive Nanocarriers.

Most of reported polymeric light-responsive nanocarriers make use of UV light to trigger morphological changes and the subsequent release of encapsulated cargoes. Moving from UV- to visible-responsive units is interesting for the potential biomedical applications of these materials. Herein we report the synthesis by ring opening polymerization (ROP) of a series of amphiphilic diblock copolymers, into which either UV or visible responsive azobenzenes have been introduced via copper(I) catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC). These copolymers are able to self-assemble into spherical micelles or vesicles when dispersed in water. The study of the response of the self-assemblies upon UV (365 nm) or visible (530 or 625 nm) light irradiation has been studied by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy (Cryo-TEM), and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) studies. Encapsulation of Nile Red, in micelles and vesicles, and Rhodamine B, in vesicles, and its light-stimulated release has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy and confocal microscopy. Appreciable morphological changes have been induced with green light, and the subsequent release of encapsulated cargoes upon green light irradiation has been confirmed.

Strategies to Stabilize the Photoinduced Supramolecular Chirality in Azobenzene Liquid Crystalline Polymers.

This paper describes the synthesis, thermal characterization and optical properties of liquid crystalline homopolymers and block copolymers with a repeating unit consisting of two functional units, with at least one of them being an azobenzene. Films of these polymers have been irradiated with circularly polarized light at room temperature, evaluating the intensity of the photoinduced chiral signal and its temporal stability upon storage. The paper also explores two different strategies to restrict the relaxation of the photoinduced order. Firstly, block copolymers have been prepared to confine the photoaddressable segments into nanoscopic domains where relaxation should be restricted. Secondly, an alternative homopolymer has been synthesized where the repeating unit combines two chromophores that can be separately photoaddressed, an azobenzene unit to efficiently photoinduce chirality and a cinnamate to fix the chiral signal by photocrosslinking.

Creation of Superhydrophobic and Superhydrophilic Surfaces on ABS Employing a Nanosecond Laser.

A nanosecond green laser was employed to obtain both superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic surfaces on a white commercial acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer (ABS). These wetting behaviors were directly related to a laser-induced superficial modification. A predefined pattern was not produced by the laser, rather, the entire surface was covered with laser pulses at 1200 DPI by placing the sample at different positions along the focal axis. The changes were related to the laser fluence used in each case. The highest fluence, on the focal position, induced a drastic heating of the material surface, and this enabled the melted material to flow, thus leading to an almost flat superhydrophilic surface. By contrast, the use of a lower fluence by placing the sample 0.8 µm out of the focal position led to a poor material flow and a fast cooling that froze in a rugged superhydrophobic surface. Contact angles higher than 150° and roll angles of less than 10° were obtained. These wetting behaviors were stable over time.

A shear-induced network of aligned wormlike micelles in a sugar-based molecular gel. From gelation to biocompatibility assays.

A new low molecular weight hydrogelator with a saccharide (lactobionic) polar head linked by azide-alkyne click chemistry was prepared in three steps. It was obtained in high purity without chromatography, by phase separation and ultrafiltration of the aqueous gel. Gelation was not obtained reproducibly by conventional heating-cooling cycles and instead was obtained by shearing the aqueous solutions, from 2 wt% to 0.25 wt%. This method of preparation favored the formation of a quite unusual network of interconnected large but thin 2D-sheets (7nm-thick) formed by the association side-by-side of long and aligned 7nm diameter wormlike micelles. It was responsible for the reproducible gelation at the macroscopic scale. A second network made of helical fibres with a 10-13nm diameter, more or less intertwined was also formed but was scarcely able to sustain a macroscopic gel on its own. The gels were analysed by TEM (Transmission Electronic Microscopy), cryo-TEM and SAXS (Small Angle X-ray Scattering). Molecular modelling was also used to highlight the possible conformations the hydrogelator can take. The gels displayed a weak and reversible transition near 20°C, close to room temperature, ascribed to the wormlike micelles 2D-sheets network. Heating over 30°C led to the loss of the gel macroscopic integrity, but gel fragments were still observed in suspension. A second transition near 50°C, ascribed to the network of helical fibres, finally dissolved completely these fragments. The gels showed thixotropic behaviour, recovering slowly their initial elastic modulus, in few hours, after injection through a needle. Stable gels were tested as scaffold for neural cell line culture, showing a reduced biocompatibility. This new gelator is a clear illustration of how controlling the pathway was critical for gel formation and how a new kind of self-assembly was obtained by shearing.

Polarization holograms in a bifunctional amorphous polymer exhibiting equal values of photoinduced linear and circular birefringences.

Light-controlled molecular alignment is a flexible and useful strategy introducing novelty in the fields of mechanics, self-organized structuring, mass transport, optics, and photonics and addressing the development of smart optical devices. Azobenzene-containing polymers are well-known photocontrollable materials with large and reversible photoinduced optical anisotropies. The vectorial holography applied to these materials enables peculiar optical devices whose properties strongly depend on the relative values of the photoinduced birefringences. Here is reported a polarization holographic recording based on the interference of two waves with orthogonal linear polarization on a bifunctional amorphous polymer that, exceptionally, exhibits equal values of linear and circular birefringence. The peculiar photoresponse of the material coupled with the holographic technique demonstrates an optical device capable of decomposing the light into a set of orthogonally polarized linear components. The holographic structures are theoretically described by the Jones matrices method and experimentally investigated.

Photocrosslinking, micropatterning and cell adhesion studies of sodium hyaluronate with a trisdiazonium salt.

Chemically unmodified sodium hyaluronate has been crosslinked by photoinduced decomposition of a trifunctional diazonium salt to generate new biomaterials. In addition, the photocrosslinking process does not require a photoinitiator. Thin films of formulations of sodium hyaluronate and the photocrosslinker at different percentages have been processed. Cytotoxicity has been explored and toxicity was not observed with the selected cell lines. 2D patterns of controlled geometry have been generated by direct laser writing to perform cell adhesion studies. Different adhesion behavior of the cell lines, as assessed by vinculin immunostaining and scanning electron microscopy, has been observed in the polymeric films depending on the degree of photocrosslinking.

In situ photopolymerization of biomaterials by thiol-yne click chemistry.

The thiol-yne click chemistry reaction has been used for the in situ photocrosslinking of an aliphatic hyperbranched polyester. The biocompatibility of the resulting networks has been studied and marked cytotoxicity was not found for HeLa (human cervical carcinoma) tumoral cells and COS7 fibroblasts. The photoinduced thiol-yne process allows the generation of patterned structures with different geometries in films by DLW and these materials can be used as substrates for cell adhesion. The influence of the substrate geometry on cell adhesion has been studied by culturing cells onto these substrates and a preference for the photopatterned polymeric material can be seen in some of the structures by contrast phase microscopy. Actin and vinculin fluorescent staining revealed different adhesion behavior for HeLa cells and COS7 fibroblasts and this could be assigned to the different motility of cells. The thiol-yne photoreaction has proven to be an attractive approach for the preparation of micropatterned biomaterials.