A phospho-switch constrains BTL2-mediated phytocytokine signaling in plant immunity.

Enabling and constraining immune activation is of fundamental importance in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Depleting BAK1 and SERK4, the co-receptors of multiple pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), abolishes pattern-triggered immunity but triggers intracellular NOD-like receptor (NLR)-mediated autoimmunity with an elusive mechanism. By deploying RNAi-based genetic screens in Arabidopsis, we identified BAK-TO-LIFE 2 (BTL2), an uncharacterized receptor kinase, sensing BAK1/SERK4 integrity. BTL2 induces autoimmunity through activating Ca2+ channel CNGC20 in a kinase-dependent manner when BAK1/SERK4 are perturbed. To compensate for BAK1 deficiency, BTL2 complexes with multiple phytocytokine receptors, leading to potent phytocytokine responses mediated by helper NLR ADR1 family immune receptors, suggesting phytocytokine signaling as a molecular link connecting PRR- and NLR-mediated immunity. Remarkably, BAK1 constrains BTL2 activation via specific phosphorylation to maintain cellular integrity. Thus, BTL2 serves as a surveillance rheostat sensing the perturbation of BAK1/SERK4 immune co-receptors in promoting NLR-mediated phytocytokine signaling to ensure plant immunity.

Phytocytokine signalling reopens stomata in plant immunity and water loss.

Stomata exert considerable effects on global carbon and water cycles by mediating gas exchange and water vapour1,2. Stomatal closure prevents water loss in response to dehydration and limits pathogen entry3,4. However, prolonged stomatal closure reduces photosynthesis and transpiration and creates aqueous apoplasts that promote colonization by pathogens. How plants dynamically regulate stomatal reopening in a changing climate is unclear. Here we show that the secreted peptides SMALL PHYTOCYTOKINES REGULATING DEFENSE AND WATER LOSS (SCREWs) and the cognate receptor kinase PLANT SCREW UNRESPONSIVE RECEPTOR (NUT) counter-regulate phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA)- and microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP)-induced stomatal closure. SCREWs sensed by NUT function as immunomodulatory phytocytokines and recruit SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SERK) co-receptors to relay immune signalling. SCREWs trigger the NUT-dependent phosphorylation of ABA INSENSITIVE 1 (ABI1) and ABI2, which leads to an increase in the activity of ABI phosphatases towards OPEN STOMATA 1 (OST1)-a key kinase that mediates ABA- and MAMP-induced stomatal closure5,6-and a reduction in the activity of S-type anion channels. After induction by dehydration and pathogen infection, SCREW-NUT signalling promotes apoplastic water loss and disrupts microorganism-rich aqueous habitats to limit pathogen colonization. The SCREW-NUT system is widely distributed across land plants, which suggests that it has an important role in preventing uncontrolled stomatal closure caused by abiotic and biotic stresses to optimize plant fitness.

It takes two to tango - molecular links between plant immunity and brassinosteroid signalling.

In response to the invasion of microorganisms, plants actively balance their resources for growth and defence, thus ensuring their survival. The regulatory mechanisms underlying plant immunity and growth operate through complex networks, in which the brassinosteroid phytohormone is one of the central players. In the past decades, a growing number of studies have revealed a multi-layered crosstalk between brassinosteroid-mediated growth and plant immunity. In this Review, by means of the tango metaphor, we immerse ourselves into the intimate relationship between brassinosteroid and plant immune signalling pathways that is tailored by the lifestyle of the pathogen and modulated by other phytohormones. The plasma membrane is the unique stage where brassinosteroid and immune signals are dynamically integrated and where compartmentalization into nanodomains that host distinct protein consortia is crucial for the dance. Shared downstream signalling components and transcription factors relay the tango play to the nucleus to activate the plant defence response and other phytohormonal signalling pathways for the finale. Understanding how brassinosteroid and immune signalling pathways are integrated in plants will help develop strategies to minimize the growth-defence trade-off, a key challenge for crop improvement.

Plant plasma membrane-resident receptors: Surveillance for infections and coordination for growth and development.

As sessile organisms, plants are exposed to pathogen invasions and environmental fluctuations. To overcome the challenges of their surroundings, plants acquire the potential to sense endogenous and exogenous cues, resulting in their adaptability. Hence, plants have evolved a large collection of plasma membrane-resident receptors, including RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASEs (RLKs) and RECEPTOR-LIKE PROTEINs (RLPs) to perceive those signals and regulate plant growth, development, and immunity. The ability of RLKs and RLPs to recognize distinct ligands relies on diverse categories of extracellular domains evolved. Co-regulatory receptors are often required to associate with RLKs and RLPs to facilitate cellular signal transduction. RECEPTOR-LIKE CYTOPLASMIC KINASEs (RLCKs) also associate with the complex, bifurcating the signal to key signaling hubs, such as MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE (MAPK) cascades, to regulate diverse biological processes. Here, we discuss recent knowledge advances in understanding the roles of RLKs and RLPs in plant growth, development, and immunity, and their connection with co-regulatory receptors, leading to activation of diverse intracellular signaling pathways.

BAK1 is involved in AtRALF1-induced inhibition of root cell expansion.

The rapid alkalinization factor (RALF) peptide negatively regulates cell expansion, and an antagonistic relationship has been demonstrated between AtRALF1, a root-specific RALF isoform in Arabidopsis, and brassinosteroids (BRs). An evaluation of the response of BR signaling mutants to AtRALF1 revealed that BRI1-associated receptor kinase1 (bak1) mutants are insensitive to AtRALF1 root growth inhibition activity. BAK1 was essential for the induction of AtRALF1-responsive genes but showed no effect on the mobilization of Ca2+ and alkalinization responses. Homozygous plants accumulating AtRALF1 and lacking the BAK1 gene did not exhibit the characteristic semi-dwarf phenotype of AtRALF1-overexpressors. Biochemical evidence indicates that AtRALF1 and BAK1 physically interact with a Kd of 4.6 µM and acridinium-labeled AtRALF1 was used to demonstrate that part of the specific binding of AtRALF1 to intact seedlings and to a microsomal fraction derived from the roots of Arabidopsis plants is BAK1-dependent. Moreover, AtRALF1 induces an increase in BAK1 phosphorylation, suggesting that the binding of AtRALF1 to BAK1 is functional. These findings show that BAK1 contains an additional AtRALF1 binding site, indicating that this protein may be part of a AtRALF1-containing complex as a co-receptor, and it is required for the negative regulation of cell expansion.

Danger-associated peptide signaling in Arabidopsis requires clathrin.

The Arabidopsis thaliana endogenous elicitor peptides (AtPeps) are released into the apoplast after cellular damage caused by pathogens or wounding to induce innate immunity by direct binding to the membrane-localized leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases, PEP RECEPTOR1 (PEPR1) and PEPR2. Although the PEPR-mediated signaling components and responses have been studied extensively, the contributions of the subcellular localization and dynamics of the active PEPRs remain largely unknown. We used live-cell imaging of the fluorescently labeled and bioactive pep1 to visualize the intracellular behavior of the PEPRs in the Arabidopsis root meristem. We found that AtPep1 decorated the plasma membrane (PM) in a receptor-dependent manner and cointernalized with PEPRs. Trafficking of the AtPep1-PEPR1 complexes to the vacuole required neither the trans-Golgi network/early endosome (TGN/EE)-localized vacuolar H(+)-ATPase activity nor the function of the brefeldin A-sensitive ADP-ribosylation factor-guanine exchange factors (ARF-GEFs). In addition, AtPep1 and different TGN/EE markers colocalized only rarely, implying that the intracellular route of this receptor-ligand pair is largely independent of the TGN/EE. Inducible overexpression of the Arabidopsis clathrin coat disassembly factor, Auxilin2, which inhibits clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), impaired the AtPep1-PEPR1 internalization and compromised AtPep1-mediated responses. Our results show that clathrin function at the PM is required to induce plant defense responses, likely through CME of cell surface-located signaling components.

The antagonistic role of an E3 ligase pair in regulating plant NLR-mediated autoimmunity and fungal pathogen resistance.

Plant immune homeostasis is achieved through a balanced immune activation and suppression, enabling effective defense while averting autoimmunity. In Arabidopsis, disrupting a mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade triggers nucleotide-binding leucine-rich-repeat (NLR) SUPPRESSOR OF mkk1/2 2 (SUMM2)-mediated autoimmunity. Through an RNAi screen, we identify PUB5, a putative plant U-box E3 ligase, as a critical regulator of SUMM2-mediated autoimmunity. In contrast to typical E3 ligases, PUB5 stabilizes CRCK3, a calmodulin-binding receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase involved in SUMM2 activation. A closely related E3 ligase, PUB44, functions oppositely with PUB5 to degrade CRCK3 through monoubiquitylation and internalization. Furthermore, CRCK3, highly expressed in roots and conserved across plant species, confers resistance to Fusarium oxysporum, a devastating soil-borne fungal pathogen, in both Arabidopsis and cotton. These findings demonstrate the antagonistic role of an E3 ligase pair in fine-tuning kinase proteostasis for the regulation of NLR-mediated autoimmunity and highlight the function of autoimmune activators in governing plant root immunity against fungal pathogens.

Malectin-like receptor kinases as protector deities in plant immunity.

Plant malectin-like receptor kinases (MLRs), also known as Catharanthus roseus receptor-like kinase-1-like proteins, are well known for their functions in pollen tube reception and tip growth, cell wall integrity sensing, and hormonal responses. Recently, mounting evidence has indicated a critical role for MLRs in plant immunity. Here we focus on the emerging functions of MLRs in modulating the two-tiered immune system mediated by cell-surface-resident pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs). MLRs complex with PRRs and NLRs and regulate immune receptor complex formation and stability. Rapid alkalinization factor peptide ligands, LORELEI-like glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins and cell-wall-associated leucine-rich repeat extensins coordinate with MLRs to orchestrate PRR- and NLR-mediated immunity. We discuss the common theme and unique features of MLR complexes concatenating different branches of plant immune signalling.

New Piper species from the eastern slopes of the Andes in northern South America.

We describe four new species of Piper from the Amazonian slopes of the northern Andes. Piperhoyoscardozii is distinguished from similar climbing species, P.dryadum and P.flagellicuspe, by its longer peduncles. The Amazonian species Piperindiwasii is distinguished from P.scutilimbum from Panama and northern Colombia by the narrowly spatulate leaf base extension. Pipernokaidoyitau is characterised by the presence of larger leaves and longer spikes than similar species, P.anonifolium and P.hostmannianum. Finally, P.velae is characterised by cordulate leaf bases in all nodes, petioles 0.8-1.5 cm long and pubescent fruits, which easily distinguish it from the related species, P.holdridgeanum.

Dimensions of social and political capital in interventions to improve household well-being: Implications for coffee-growing areas in southern Colombia.

This paper studies the influence of community capitals on well-being through a Community Capital Index (CCI) within coffee-growing families in southern Colombia. Our results show different farm typologies, with different levels of capital endowment translated into well-being that, in our case, were represented in the CCI. Specifically, social and political capitals positively affect coffee-growing families' decisions in terms of life strategies. The results of this study increase our understanding of welfare enhancement and its relationship with capital endowment according to the type of coffee producer, having implications for the planning of more effective programs towards the improvement of quality of life.

A trimeric CrRLK1L-LLG1 complex genetically modulates SUMM2-mediated autoimmunity.

Cell death is intrinsically linked with immunity. Disruption of an immune-activated MAPK cascade, consisting of MEKK1, MKK1/2, and MPK4, triggers cell death and autoimmunity through the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) protein SUMM2 and the MAPK kinase kinase MEKK2. In this study, we identify a Catharanthus roseus receptor-like kinase 1-like (CrRLK1L), named LETUM2/MEDOS1 (LET2/MDS1), and the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein LLG1 as regulators of mekk1-mkk1/2-mpk4 cell death. LET2/MDS1 functions additively with LET1, another CrRLK1L, and acts genetically downstream of MEKK2 in regulating SUMM2 activation. LET2/MDS1 complexes with LET1 and promotes LET1 phosphorylation, revealing an intertwined regulation between different CrRLK1Ls. LLG1 interacts with the ectodomain of LET1/2 and mediates LET1/2 transport to the plasma membrane, corroborating its function as a co-receptor of LET1/2 in the mekk1-mkk1/2-mpk4 cell death pathway. Thus, our data suggest that a trimeric complex consisting of two CrRLK1Ls LET1, LET2/MDS1, and a GPI-anchored protein LLG1 that regulates the activation of NLR SUMM2 for initiating cell death and autoimmunity.

Mitochondrial uncouplers inhibit clathrin-mediated endocytosis largely through cytoplasmic acidification.

ATP production requires the establishment of an electrochemical proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondrial uncouplers dissipate this proton gradient and disrupt numerous cellular processes, including vesicular trafficking, mainly through energy depletion. Here we show that Endosidin9 (ES9), a novel mitochondrial uncoupler, is a potent inhibitor of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) in different systems and that ES9 induces inhibition of CME not because of its effect on cellular ATP, but rather due to its protonophore activity that leads to cytoplasm acidification. We show that the known tyrosine kinase inhibitor tyrphostinA23, which is routinely used to block CME, displays similar properties, thus questioning its use as a specific inhibitor of cargo recognition by the AP-2 adaptor complex via tyrosine motif-based endocytosis signals. Furthermore, we show that cytoplasm acidification dramatically affects the dynamics and recruitment of clathrin and associated adaptors, and leads to reduction of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate from the plasma membrane.

Biological activity of nine recombinant AtRALF peptides: implications for their perception and function in Arabidopsis.

RALF is a small (5 kDa) and ubiquitous plant peptide signal. It was first isolated from tobacco leaf protein extracts owing to its capacity to alkalinize the extracellular media of cell suspensions. RALFs inhibit root growth and hypocotyl elongation, and a role for RALFs in cell expansion has also been proposed. Arabidopsis has 37 RALF isoforms (AtRALF), but only a small group of nine has high primary structure identity to the original RALF peptide isolated from tobacco. Herein, we report the heterologous production of these nine peptides in Escherichia coli and the evaluation of their activity in five biological assays. All AtRALF peptides produced showed strong alkalinizing activities, with the exception of the pollen-specific isoform AtRALF4. Although it exhibited no inhibitory activity in the root growth and hypocotyl elongation assays, AtRALF4 is a strong inhibitor of pollen germination. Our data demonstrate that the divergence in the tissue specificity and gene expression patterns of the different AtRALFs does not change the fact that their main role seems to be the regulation of cell expansion. Furthermore, different activities in the alkalinization assays upon the addition of two consecutive and saturating doses of the peptides suggest that the peptides are likely being sensed by specific receptors.