How clinical supervisors develop trust in their trainees: a qualitative study.

CONTEXT: Clinical supervisors oversee trainees' performance while granting them increasing opportunities to work independently. Although the factors contributing to supervisors' trust in their trainees to conduct clinical work have been identified, how the development of trust is shaped by these factors remains less clear. OBJECTIVES: This study was designed to determine how supervisors develop and experience trust in resident (postgraduate years 2 and 3) trainees in the clinical workplace. METHODS: Internal medicine in-patient supervisors at two institutions were interviewed about the meaning and experience of developing trust in resident trainees. Transcribed data were coded and analysed using a phenomenographic approach. RESULTS: Forty-three supervisors participated. Supervisors characterised the meaning of trust from the perspectives of trainee competence and leadership or from their own perspective of needing to provide more or less supervision. Supervisors initially considered trust to be usually independent of prior knowledge of the resident, and then used sources of information about trust to develop their judgements of trust. Sources, which incorporated inference, included supervisors' comparisons with a standard, direct observation of the trainee as a team leader or care provider, and stakeholder input from team members, patients and families. Barriers against and accelerators to trust formation related to the resident, supervisor, resident-supervisor relationship, context and task. Trust formation had implications for supervisors' roles, residents' increasingly independent provision of care, and team functioning. CONCLUSIONS: From a general starting point, supervisors develop trust in residents informed by observation, inference and information gathered from the team and patients. Judgements of trust yield outcomes defined by supervisors' changing roles, the increasingly independent provision of care by residents, and team functioning. The implications of these findings for graded resident autonomy aligned with learning needs can inform the design of training environments to enable readiness for unsupervised practice.

Assessing 3rd year medical students' interprofessional collaborative practice behaviors during a standardized patient encounter: A multi-institutional, cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: To understand how third-year medical student interprofessional collaborative practice (IPCP) is affected by self-efficacy and interprofessional experiences (extracurricular experiences and formal curricula). METHODS: The authors measured learner IPCP using an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) with a standardized nurse (SN) and standardized patient (SP) during a statewide clinical performance examination. At four California medical schools from April to August 2012, SPs and SNs rated learner IPCP (10 items, range 0-100) and patient-centered communication (10 items, range 0-100). Post-OSCE, students reported their interprofessional self-efficacy (16 items, 2 factors, range 1-10) and prior extracurricular interprofessional experiences (3 items). School representatives shared their interprofessional curricula during guided interviews. RESULTS: Four hundred sixty-four of 530 eligible medical students (88%) participated. Mean IPCP performance was 79.6 ± 14.1 and mean self-efficacy scores were 7.9 (interprofessional teamwork) and 7.1 (interprofessional feedback and evaluation). Seventy percent of students reported prior extracurricular interprofessional experiences; all schools offered formal interprofessional curricula. IPCP was associated with self-efficacy for interprofessional teamwork (ß = 1.6, 95% CI [0.1, 3.1], p = 0.04) and patient-centered communication (ß = 12.5, 95% CI [2.7, 22.3], p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Medical student IPCP performance was associated with self-efficacy for interprofessional teamwork and patient-centered communication. Increasing interprofessional opportunities that influence medical students' self-efficacy may increase engagement in IPCP.

Novel use of an OSCE to assess medical students' responses to a request for a low value diagnostic imaging test: A mixed methods analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate medical students' communication skills with a standardized patient (SP) requesting a low value test and describe challenges students identify in addressing the request. METHODS: In this mixed-methods study, third-year students from two medical schools obtained a history, performed a physical examination, and counseled an SP presenting with uncomplicated low back pain who requests an MRI which is not indicated. SP raters evaluated student communication skills using a 14-item checklist. Post-encounter, students reported whether they ordered an MRI and challenges faced. RESULTS: Students who discussed practice guidelines and risks of unnecessary testing with the SP were less likely to order an MRI. Students cited several challenges in responding to the SP request including patient characteristics and circumstances, lack of knowledge about MRI indications and alternatives, and lack of communication skills to address the patient request. CONCLUSIONS: Most students did not order an MRI for uncomplicated LBP, but only a small number of students educated the patient about the evidence to avoid unnecessary imaging or the harm of unnecessary testing. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Knowledge about unnecessary imaging in uncomplicated LBP may be insufficient to adhere to best practices and longitudinal training in challenging conversations is needed.

Perspectives on the current state of pre-clerkship clinical reasoning instruction in United States medical schools: a survey of clinical skills course directors.

OBJECTIVES: Clinical reasoning skills are essential for sound medical decision-making. Though many have suggested that clinical reasoning instruction should begin in pre-clerkship curricula, neither pre-clerkship clinical skills director perspectives nor extent of instruction is known. This survey study serves as part of a needs assessment for United States medical school pre-clerkship clinical reasoning curricula. METHODS: United States medical school pre-clerkship clinical skills course directors were surveyed about perceived importance of formal instruction on clinical reasoning concepts, inclusion of these concepts in the curricula, barriers to instruction, and familiarity with clerkship curricula. Results were analyzed using descriptive and analytic statistics. Narrative comments were analyzed qualitatively for themes. RESULTS: Of 148 directors surveyed, 102 (69%) participated and 89 (60%) completed all closed-ended items. Each clinical reasoning concept was identified as somewhat to extremely important to include in pre-clerkship curricula by 90-99% of respondents. Pre-clerkship curricula included variable degrees of formal instruction for concepts, though most respondents rated their inclusion as moderate or extensive. Perceived importance of teaching most concepts moderately correlated with the degree of inclusion in the curriculum (Spearman's rho 0.39-0.44). Curricular time constraints and lack of faculty with skills to teach these concepts were the most frequently cited barriers to instruction. Respondents indicated being somewhat 57% (n=54) to extremely 29% (n=27) familiar with clerkship curricula at their institutions. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to examine pre-clerkship clinical skills course director perspectives about clinical reasoning instruction and extent of its inclusion in their curricula.

Implementation of a Hypothesis-Driven Physical Exam Session in a Transition to Clerkship Program.

Introduction: The head-to-toe approach to teaching the physical examination (PE) focuses on technique and performing a comprehensive PE whereas core + clusters and hypothesis-driven PE (HDPE) approaches integrate clinical reasoning into performing a focused PE. These approaches can be implemented in a developmental sequence. We report the implementation and evaluation of an HDPE educational session. Methods: We designed a 3-hour HDPE session as part of a transition to clerkship program. For each of five clinical vignettes, rising third-year students worked in pairs and then in small groups to generate a differential diagnosis and determine relevant PE maneuvers. Students next performed these maneuvers on peers with facilitator observation and feedback. Students completed postsession surveys on their retrospective pre- and postsession knowledge and confidence, as well as their satisfaction with the session. We completed quantitative and qualitative analyses on survey data. Results: One hundred ninety-two students participated, and 140 (73%) completed the survey. Students were significantly more likely to report feeling confident generating a differential diagnosis and using it to select PE maneuvers for common complaints postsession. Over 80% of respondents felt the session improved critical thinking about patient presentations and would help them in clerkships. Discussion: Our session increased student confidence in the progression to performing an HDPE just prior to the start of clerkships. The session is feasible and straightforward to implement. It requires a large number of faculty to facilitate, but the breadth of cases used allows inclusion of faculty from all fields.

Leadership Observation and Feedback Tool: A Novel Instrument for Assessment of Clinical Leadership Skills.

BACKGROUND: While leadership training is increasingly incorporated into residency education, existing assessment tools to provide feedback on leadership skills are only applicable in limited contexts. OBJECTIVE: We developed an instrument, the Leadership Observation and Feedback Tool (LOFT), for assessing clinical leadership. METHODS: We used an iterative process to develop the tool, beginning with adapting the Leadership Practices Inventory to create an open-ended survey for identification of clinical leadership behaviors. We presented these to leadership experts who defined essential behaviors through a modified Delphi approach. In May 2014 we tested the resulting 29-item tool among residents in the internal medicine and pediatrics departments at 2 academic medical centers. We analyzed instrument performance using Cronbach's alpha, interrater reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), and item performance using linear-by-linear test comparisons of responses by postgraduate year, site, and specialty. RESULTS: A total of 377 (of 526, 72%) team members completed the LOFT for 95 (of 519, 18%) residents. Overall ratings were high-only 14% scored at the novice level. Cronbach's alpha was 0.79, and the ICC ranged from 0.20 to 0.79. Linear-by-linear test comparisons revealed significant differences between postgraduate year groups for some items, but no significant differences by site or specialty. Acceptability and usefulness ratings by respondents were high. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a rigorous approach to instrument design, we were unable to collect convincing validity evidence for our instrument. The tool may still have some usefulness for providing formative feedback to residents on their clinical leadership skills.