Indian genetic heritage in Southeast Asian populations.

The great ethnolinguistic diversity found today in mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) reflects multiple migration waves of people in the past. Maritime trading between MSEA and India was established at the latest 300 BCE, and the formation of early states in Southeast Asia during the first millennium CE was strongly influenced by Indian culture, a cultural influence that is still prominent today. Several ancient Indian-influenced states were located in present-day Thailand, and various populations in the country are likely to be descendants of people from those states. To systematically explore Indian genetic heritage in MSEA populations, we generated genome-wide SNP data (using the Affymetrix Human Origins array) for 119 present-day individuals belonging to 10 ethnic groups from Thailand and co-analyzed them with published data using PCA, ADMIXTURE, and methods relying on f-statistics and on autosomal haplotypes. We found low levels of South Asian admixture in various MSEA populations for whom there is evidence of historical connections with the ancient Indian-influenced states but failed to find this genetic component in present-day hunter-gatherer groups and relatively isolated groups from the highlands of Northern Thailand. The results suggest that migration of Indian populations to MSEA may have been responsible for the spread of Indian culture in the region. Our results also support close genetic affinity between Kra-Dai-speaking (also known as Tai-Kadai) and Austronesian-speaking populations, which fits a linguistic hypothesis suggesting cladality of the two language families.

Recent Common Origin, Reduced Population Size, and Marked Admixture Have Shaped European Roma Genomes.

The Roma Diaspora-traditionally known as Gypsies-remains among the least explored population migratory events in historical times. It involved the migration of Roma ancestors out-of-India through the plateaus of Western Asia ultimately reaching Europe. The demographic effects of the Diaspora-bottlenecks, endogamy, and gene flow-might have left marked molecular traces in the Roma genomes. Here, we analyze the whole-genome sequence of 46 Roma individuals pertaining to four migrant groups in six European countries. Our analyses revealed a strong, early founder effect followed by a drastic reduction of ∼44% in effective population size. The Roma common ancestors split from the Punjabi population, from Northwest India, some generations before the Diaspora started, <2,000 years ago. The initial bottleneck and subsequent endogamy are revealed by the occurrence of extensive runs of homozygosity and identity-by-descent segments in all Roma populations. Furthermore, we provide evidence of gene flow from Armenian and Anatolian groups in present-day Roma, although the primary contribution to Roma gene pool comes from non-Roma Europeans, which accounts for >50% of their genomes. The linguistic and historical differentiation of Roma in migrant groups is confirmed by the differential proportion, but not a differential source, of European admixture in the Roma groups, which shows a westward cline. In the present study, we found that despite the strong admixture Roma had in their diaspora, the signature of the initial bottleneck and the subsequent endogamy is still present in Roma genomes.

Paternal genetic history of the Yong population in northern Thailand revealed by Y-chromosomal haplotypes and haplogroups.

We have determined the distribution of Y-chromosomal haplotypes and haplogroups in the Yong population, one of the largest and well-known ethnic groups that began migrating southward from China to Thailand centuries ago. Their unique mass migration pattern provided great opportunities for researchers to study the genetic links of the transboundary migration movements among the peoples of China, Myanmar and Thailand. We analysed relevant male-specific markers, such as Y-STRs and Y-SNPs, and the distribution of 23 Y-STRs of 111 Yong individuals and 116 nearby ethnic groups including the Shan, Northern Thai, Lawa, Lua, Skaw, Pwo and Padong groups. We found that the general haplogroup distribution values were similar among different populations; however, the haplogroups O1b-M268 and O2-M112 constituted the vast majority of these values. In contrast with previous maternal lineage studies, the paternal lineage of the Yong did not relate to the Xishuangbanna Dai people, who represent their historically documented ancestors. However, they did display a close genetic affinity to other prehistoric Tai-Kadai speaking groups in China such as the Zhuang and Bouyei. Low degrees of genetic admixture within the populations who belonged to the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan linguistic families were observed in the gene pool of the Yong populations. Resettlement in northern Thailand in the early part of the nineteenth century AD, by way of mass migration trend, was able to preserve the Yong's ancestral genetic background in terms of the way they had previously lived in China and Myanmar. Our study has revealed similar genetic structures among ethnic populations in northern Thailand and southern China, and has identified and emphasized an ancient Tai-Kadai patrilineal ancestry line in the Yong ethnic group.

Identification of World War II bone remains found in Ukraine using classical anthropological and mitochondrial DNA results.

Gyula Ágner was a Royal Hungarian First Lieutenant (1st Lt.) during the World War II and died at 30 years old due to a mine shrapnel injury on 27 April 1944 in Luczky, Ukraine. In October 2014, the Hungarian Ministry of Defence exhumated the remains then transported them to Budapest in Hungary. Classical anthropological methods were used to determine morphological gender, height and age at death; furthermore, metrical and pathological characters were also analysed. Determination of maternal lineage was the only solution to examine the possible relationship of the bone fragments. Gyula Ágner did not have direct descendants, thus the living niece of the deceased (his sister's daughter) served as the reference person during the investigations. Hypervariable regions of the mtDNA control region (HV1, HV2 and HV3) were amplified by Qiagen® Multiplex PCR Kit in different monoplex reactions. The results of the anthropological and genetical analysis supported the hypothesis that the bone remains belong to Gyula Ágner.

A simultaneous search for footprints of early human migration processes using the genetic and folk music data in Eurasia.

In this study, we aimed to illustrate the efficiency of correlation analysis of musical and genetic data for certain common ethnic and ethno-musical roots of mankind. The comparison of the results to archaeogenetic data shows that correlations of recent musical and genetic data may reveal past cultural and migration processes resulting in recent connections. The significance tests verified our hypothesis supposing that propagation of oral musical traditions can be related to early human migration processes is well-founded, because the multidimensional point system determined by the inverse rank vectors of correlating Hg-UCT pairs has a very clear structure. We found that associations of Hgs jointly propagating with associations of UCTs (Unified Contour Type) can be identified as significant complex components in both modern and ancient populations, thus, modern populations can be considered as admixtures of these ancient Hg associations. It also seems obvious to conclude that these ancient Hg associations strewed their musical "parent languages" during their migrations, and the correlating UCTs of these musical parent languages may also be basic components of the recent folk music cultures. Thus, we can draw a hypothetical picture of the main characteristics of ancient musical cultures. Modern and prehistoric populations belonging to a common Hg-UCT association are located to very similar geographical areas, consequently, recent folk music cultures are basically determined by prehistoric migrations. Our study could be considered as an initial step in analysis of the correlations of prehistoric and recent musical and genetic characteristics of human evolution history.

Genetic history of Bashkirian Mari and Southern Mansi ethnic groups in the Ural region.

According to genetic studies, the Hungarian Y-chromosomal gene pool significantly differs from other Uralic-speaking populations. Hungarians possess a significant frequency of haplogroup R1a-Z280 and a low frequency of haplogroup N-Tat, which is common among other Uralic-speaking populations. Based on this evidence, we further worked to define the links between the linguistically related Hungarian, Mansi and Bashkirian Mari populations. Samples were collected from 45 Bashkirian Mari and 36 Southern Mansi males in the Ural region. We analyzed male-specific markers including 23 STRs and 36 SNPs, which reflect past and recent paternal genetic history. We found that the haplogroup distribution of the two population samples showed high genetic similarity to each other except for the N-Tat* and R1a-Z93 haplogroups in the Bashkirian Mari males. On the MDS plots constructed from Fst- and Rst-genetic distances, the Bashkirian Mari and Southern Mansi population groups showed close genetic affinities with the Khanty, Northern Mansi, Mari, and Estonian populations. For phylogenetic studies, networks were constructed for the most frequent haplogroups in both populations together with other Eurasian populations. Both populations shared common haplotypes within haplogroups R1a-Z280 or N-L1034 with Hungarian speakers, suggesting a common paternal genetic footprint that arose in prehistoric or historic times. Overall, the Hungarian, Mansi, and Bashkirian Mari populations have a much more complex genetic history than the traditional linguistic model or history would suggest. Further studies are needed to clarify the common genetic profiles may have been acquired directly or indirectly during the more or less known their history.

A new self-learning computational method for footprints of early human migration processes.

We present a new self-learning computational method searching for footprints of early migration processes determining the genetic compositions of recent human populations. The data being analysed are 26- and 18-dimensional mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroup distributions representing 50 recent and 34 ancient populations in Eurasia and America. The algorithms search for associations of haplogroups jointly propagating in a significant subset of these populations. Joint propagations of Hgs are detected directly by similar ranking lists of populations derived from Hg frequencies of the 50 Hg distributions. The method provides us the most characteristic associations of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups, and the set of populations where these associations propagate jointly. In addition, the typical ranking lists characterizing these Hg associations show the geographical distribution, the probable place of origin and the paths of their protection. Comparison to ancient data verifies that these recent geographical distributions refer to the most important prehistoric migrations supported by archaeological evidences.

Dispersals of the Siberian Y-chromosome haplogroup Q in Eurasia.

The human Y-chromosome has proven to be a powerful tool for tracing the paternal history of human populations and genealogical ancestors. The human Y-chromosome haplogroup Q is the most frequent haplogroup in the Americas. Previous studies have traced the origin of haplogroup Q to the region around Central Asia and Southern Siberia. Although the diversity of haplogroup Q in the Americas has been studied in detail, investigations on the diffusion of haplogroup Q in Eurasia and Africa are still limited. In this study, we collected 39 samples from China and Russia, investigated 432 samples from previous studies of haplogroup Q, and analyzed the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) subclades Q1a1a1-M120, Q1a2a1-L54, Q1a1b-M25, Q1a2-M346, Q1a2a1a2-L804, Q1a2b2-F1161, Q1b1a-M378, and Q1b1a1-L245. Through NETWORK and BATWING analyses, we found that the subclades of haplogroup Q continued to disperse from Central Asia and Southern Siberia during the past 10,000 years. Apart from its migration through the Beringia to the Americas, haplogroup Q also moved from Asia to the south and to the west during the Neolithic period, and subsequently to the whole of Eurasia and part of Africa.

A study of the Bodrogköz population in north-eastern Hungary by Y chromosomal haplotypes and haplogroups.

We have determined the distribution of Y chromosomal haplotypes and haplogroups in population samples from one of the most important areas in north-eastern Hungary from many villages in the Bodrogköz. The Bodrogköz region was chosen due to its isolated nature, because this area was a moorland encircled by the Tisza, Bodrog, and Latorca Rivers and inhabitants of this part of Hungary escaped from both Tatar and Ottoman invasions, which decimated the post-Hungarian Conquest populations in many parts of the country. Furthermore, in the first half of the tenth century, this region served as the Palatial Centre and burial grounds of the Hungarian tribes. It has thus been assumed that the present population in this area is likely to be more similar to the population that lived in the Conquest period. We analysed male-specific markers, 23 Y-STRs and more than 30 Y-SNPs, that reflect the past and recent genetic history. We found that the general haplogroup distribution of the samples showed high genetic similarity to non-Bodrogköz Hungarians and neighbouring populations, despite its sheltered location and historical record. We were able to classify the Y-chromosomal haplogroups into four large groups based on STR mutation events: pre-Roman/Roman ancient lineage, Finno-Ugric speakers arriving into the Carpathian Basin, Migration period admixture, and post-Hungarian Conquest admixture. It is clear that a significantly larger database with deep haplogroup resolution, including ancient DNA data, is required to strengthen this research.

Genetic structure of the early Hungarian conquerors inferred from mtDNA haplotypes and Y-chromosome haplogroups in a small cemetery.

We applied ancient DNA methods to shed light on the origin of ancient Hungarians and their relation to modern populations. Hungarians moved into the Carpathian Basin from the Eurasian Pontic steppes in the year 895 AD as a confederation of seven tribes, but their further origin remains obscure. Here, we present 17 mtDNA haplotypes and four Y-chromosome haplogroups, which portray the genetic composition of an entire small cemetery of the first generation Hungarians. Using novel algorithms to compare these mitochondrial DNA haplogroups with other ancient and modern Eurasian data, we revealed that a significant portion of the Hungarians probably originated from a long ago consolidated gene pool in Central Asia-South Siberia, which still persists in modern Hungarians. Another genetic layer of the early Hungarians was obtained during their westward migrations by admixing with various populations of European origin, and an important component of these was derived from the Caucasus region. Most of the modern populations, which are genetically closest relatives of ancient Hungarians, today speak non-Indo-European languages. Our results contribute to our understanding of the peopling of Europe by providing ancient DNA data from a still genetically poorly studied period of medieval human migrations.

The Y-chromosome tree bursts into leaf: 13,000 high-confidence SNPs covering the majority of known clades.

Many studies of human populations have used the male-specific region of the Y chromosome (MSY) as a marker, but MSY sequence variants have traditionally been subject to ascertainment bias. Also, dating of haplogroups has relied on Y-specific short tandem repeats (STRs), involving problems of mutation rate choice, and possible long-term mutation saturation. Next-generation sequencing can ascertain single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in an unbiased way, leading to phylogenies in which branch-lengths are proportional to time, and allowing the times-to-most-recent-common-ancestor (TMRCAs) of nodes to be estimated directly. Here we describe the sequencing of 3.7 Mb of MSY in each of 448 human males at a mean coverage of 51×, yielding 13,261 high-confidence SNPs, 65.9% of which are previously unreported. The resulting phylogeny covers the majority of the known clades, provides date estimates of nodes, and constitutes a robust evolutionary framework for analyzing the history of other classes of mutation. Different clades within the tree show subtle but significant differences in branch lengths to the root. We also apply a set of 23 Y-STRs to the same samples, allowing SNP- and STR-based diversity and TMRCA estimates to be systematically compared. Ongoing purifying selection is suggested by our analysis of the phylogenetic distribution of nonsynonymous variants in 15 MSY single-copy genes.

mtDNA analysis of 174 Eurasian populations using a new iterative rank correlation method.

In this study, we analyse 27-dimensional mtDNA haplogroup distributions of 174 Eurasian, North-African and American populations, including numerous ancient data as well. The main contribution of this work was the description of the haplogroup distribution of recent and ancient populations as compounds of certain hypothetic ancient core populations immediately or indirectly determining the migration processes in Eurasia for a long time. To identify these core populations, we developed a new iterative algorithm determining clusters of the 27 mtDNA haplogroups studied having strong rank correlation among each other within a definite subset of the populations. Based on this study, the current Eurasian populations can be considered as compounds of three early core populations regarding to maternal lineages. We wanted to show that a simultaneous analysis of ancient and recent data using a new iterative rank correlation algorithm and the weighted SOC learning technique may reveal the most important and deterministic migration processes in the past. This technique allowed us to determine geographically, historically and linguistically well-interpretable clusters of our dataset having a very specific, hardly classifiable structure. The method was validated using a 2-dimensional stepping stone model.

Phylogenetic insights into the genetic legacies of Hungarian-speaking communities in the Carpathian Basin.

This study focuses on exploring the uniparental genetic lineages of Hungarian-speaking minorities residing in rural villages of Baranja (Croatia) and the Zobor region (Slovakia). We aimed to identify ancestral lineages by examining genetic markers distributed across the entire mitogenome and on the Y-chromosome. This allowed us to discern disparities in regional genetic structures within these communities. By integrating our newly acquired genetic data from a total of 168 participants with pre-existing Eurasian and ancient DNA datasets, our goal was to enrich the understanding of the genetic history trajectories of Carpathian Basin populations. Our findings suggest that while population-based analyses may not be sufficiently robust to detect fine-scale uniparental genetic patterns with the sample sizes at hand, phylogenetic analysis of well-characterized Y-chromosomal Short Tandem Repeat (STR) data and entire mitogenome sequences did uncover multiple lineage ties to far-flung regions and eras. While the predominant portions of both paternal and maternal DNA align with the East-Central European spectrum, rarer subhaplogroups and lineages have unveiled ancient ties to both prehistoric and historic populations spanning Europe and Eastern Eurasia. This research augments the expansive field of phylogenetics, offering critical perspectives on the genetic constitution and heritage of the communities in East-Central Europe.

High Coverage Mitogenomes and Y-Chromosomal Typing Reveal Ancient Lineages in the Modern-Day Székely Population in Romania.

Here we present 115 whole mitogenomes and 92 Y-chromosomal Short Tandem Repeat (STR) and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) profiles from a Hungarian ethnic group, the Székelys (in Romanian: Secuii, in German: Sekler), living in southeast Transylvania (Romania). The Székelys can be traced back to the 12th century in the region, and numerous scientific theories exist as to their origin. We carefully selected sample providers that had local ancestors inhabiting small villages in the area of Odorheiu Secuiesc/Székelyudvarhely in Romania. The results of our research and the reported data signify a qualitative leap compared to previous studies since it presents the first complete mitochondrial DNA sequences and Y-chromosomal profiles of 23 STRs from the region. We evaluated the results with population genetic and phylogenetic methods in the context of the modern and ancient populations that are either geographically or historically related to the Székelys. Our results demonstrate a predominantly local uniparental make-up of the population that also indicates limited admixture with neighboring populations. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the presumed eastern origin of certain maternal (A, C, D) and paternal (Q, R1a) lineages, and, in some cases, they could also be linked to ancient DNA data from the Migration Period (5th-9th centuries AD) and Hungarian Conquest Period (10th century AD) populations.

A comparative phylogenetic study of genetics and folk music.

Computer-aided comparison of folk music from different nations is one of the newest research areas. We were intrigued to have identified some important similarities between phylogenetic studies and modern folk music. First of all, both of them use similar concepts and representation tools such as multidimensional scaling for modelling relationship between populations. This gave us the idea to investigate whether these connections are merely accidental or if they mirror population migrations from the past. We raised the question; does the complex structure of musical connections display a clear picture and can this system be interpreted by the genetic analysis? This study is the first to systematically investigate the incidental genetic background of the folk music context between different populations. Paternal (42 populations) and maternal lineages (56 populations) were compared based on Fst genetic distances of the Y chromosomal and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies. To test this hypothesis, the corresponding musical cultures were also compared using an automatic overlap analysis of parallel melody styles for 31 Eurasian nations. We found that close musical relations of populations indicate close genetic distances (<0.05) with a probability of 82%. It was observed that there is a significant correlation between population genetics and folk music; maternal lineages have a more important role in folk music traditions than paternal lineages. Furthermore, the combination of these disciplines establishing a new interdisciplinary research field of "music-genetics" can be an efficient tool to get a more comprehensive picture on the complex behaviour of populations in prehistoric time.

Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1.

Haplogroup R1a1-M198 is a major clade of Y chromosomal haplogroups which is distributed all across Eurasia. To this date, many efforts have been made to identify large SNP-based subgroups and migration patterns of this haplogroup. The origin and spread of R1a1 chromosomes in Eurasia has, however, remained unknown due to the lack of downstream SNPs within the R1a1 haplogroup. Since the discovery of R1a1-M458, this is the first scientific attempt to divide haplogroup R1a1-M198 into multiple SNP-based sub-haplogroups. We have genotyped 217 R1a1-M198 samples from seven different population groups at M458, as well as the Z280 and Z93 SNPs recently identified from the "1000 Genomes Project". The two additional binary markers present an effective tool because now more than 98% of the samples analyzed assign to one of the three sub-haplogroups. R1a1-M458 and R1a1-Z280 were typical for the Hungarian population groups, whereas R1a1-Z93 was typical for Malaysian Indians and the Hungarian Roma. Inner and Central Asia is an overlap zone for the R1a1-Z280 and R1a1-Z93 lineages. This pattern implies that an early differentiation zone of R1a1-M198 conceivably occurred somewhere within the Eurasian Steppes or the Middle East and Caucasus region as they lie between South Asia and Eastern Europe. The detection of the Z93 paternal genetic imprint in the Hungarian Roma gene pool is consistent with South Asian ancestry and amends the view that H1a-M82 is their only discernible paternal lineage of Indian heritage.

The paternal genetic legacy of Hungarian-speaking Rétköz (Hungary) and Váh valley (Slovakia) populations.

One hundred and six Rétköz and 48 Váh valley samples were collected from the contact zones of Hungarian-Slovakian territories and were genotyped for Y-chromosomal haplotypes and haplogroups. The results were compared with contemporary and archaic data from published sources. The genetic composition of the Rétköz population from Hungary and the Váh valley population from Slovakia indicates different histories. In the Rétköz population, the paternal lineages that were also found in the Hungarian Conquerors, such as R1a-Z93, N-M46, Q-M242, and R1b-L23, were better preserved. These haplogroups occurred in 10% of the population. The population of the Váh valley, however, is characterized by the complete absence of these haplogroups. Our study did not detect a genetic link between the Váh valley population and the Hungarian Conquerors; the genetic composition of the Váh valley population is similar to that of the surrounding Indo-European populations. The Hungarian Rétköz males shared common haplotypes with ancient Xiongnu, ancient Avar, Caucasian Avar, Abkhazian, Balkarian, and Circassian males within haplogroups R1a-Z93, N1c-M46, and R1b-L23, indicating a common genetic footprint. Another difference between the two studied Hungarian populations can be concluded from the Fst-based MDS plot. The Váh valley, in the western part of the Hungarian-Slovakian contact zone, is genetically closer to the Western Europeans. In contrast, Rétköz is in the eastern part of that zone and therefore closer to the Eastern Europeans.

Genetic structure of the paternal lineage of the Roma people.

According to written sources, Roma (Romanies, Gypsies) arrived in the Balkans around 1,000 years ago from India and have subsequently spread through several parts of Europe. Genetic data, particularly from the Y chromosome, have supported this model, and can potentially refine it. We now provide an analysis of Y-chromosomal markers from five Roma and two non-Roma populations (N = 787) in order to investigate the genetic relatedness of the Roma population groups to one another, and to gain further understanding of their likely Indian origins, the genetic contribution of non-Roma males to the Roma populations, and the early history of their splits and migrations in Europe. The two main sources of the Roma paternal gene pool were identified as South Asian and European. The reduced diversity and expansion of H1a-M82 lineages in all Roma groups imply shared descent from a single paternal ancestor in the Indian subcontinent. The Roma paternal gene pool also contains a specific subset of E1b1b1a-M78 and J2a2-M67 lineages, implying admixture during early settlement in the Balkans and the subsequent influx into the Carpathian Basin. Additional admixture, evident in the low and moderate frequencies of typical European haplogroups I1-M253, I2a-P37.2, I2b-M223, R1b1-P25, and R1a1-M198, has occurred in a more population-specific manner.

Subdividing Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1 reveals Norse Viking dispersal lineages in Britain.

The influence of Viking-Age migrants to the British Isles is obvious in archaeological and place-names evidence, but their demographic impact has been unclear. Autosomal genetic analyses support Norse Viking contributions to parts of Britain, but show no signal corresponding to the Danelaw, the region under Scandinavian administrative control from the ninth to eleventh centuries. Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1 has been considered as a possible marker for Viking migrations because of its high frequency in peninsular Scandinavia (Norway and Sweden). Here we select ten Y-SNPs to discriminate informatively among hg R1a1 sub-haplogroups in Europe, analyse these in 619 hg R1a1 Y chromosomes including 163 from the British Isles, and also type 23 short-tandem repeats (Y-STRs) to assess internal diversity. We find three specifically Western-European sub-haplogroups, two of which predominate in Norway and Sweden, and are also found in Britain; star-like features in the STR networks of these lineages indicate histories of expansion. We ask whether geographical distributions of hg R1a1 overall, and of the two sub-lineages in particular, correlate with regions of Scandinavian influence within Britain. Neither shows any frequency difference between regions that have higher (≥10%) or lower autosomal contributions from Norway and Sweden, but both are significantly overrepresented in the region corresponding to the Danelaw. These differences between autosomal and Y-chromosomal histories suggest either male-specific contribution, or the influence of patrilocality. Comparison of modern DNA with recently available ancient DNA data supports the interpretation that two sub-lineages of hg R1a1 spread with the Vikings from peninsular Scandinavia.

Biologia futura: confessions in genes.

Y-DNA and mtDNA have been a widely used tool not only in forensic genetic applications but in human evolutionary and population genetic studies. Its paternal or maternal inheritance and lack of recombination have offered the opportunity to explore genealogical relationships among individuals and to study the frequency differences of paternal and maternal clades among human populations at continental and regional levels. It is unbelievable, but true, that the disadvantages of paternal and maternal lineages in forensic genetic studies, i.e., everyone within a family have the same paternal or maternal haplotype and haplogroup, become advantages in human evolutionary studies, i.e., reveal the genetic history of successful mothers and successful fathers. Thanks to these amazing properties of haploid markers, they provide tools for mapping the migration routes of human populations during prehistoric and historical periods, separately as maternal and paternal lineages, and together as the genetic history of a population.