Genomic basis for the unique phenotype of the alkaliphilic purple nonsulfur bacterium Rhodobaca bogoriensis.

Although several species of purple sulfur bacteria inhabit soda lakes, Rhodobaca bogoriensis is the first purple nonsulfur bacterium cultured from such highly alkaline environments. Rhodobaca bogoriensis strain LBB1T was isolated from Lake Bogoria, a soda lake in the African Rift Valley. The phenotype of Rhodobaca bogoriensis is unique among purple bacteria; the organism is alkaliphilic but not halophilic, produces carotenoids absent from other purple nonsulfur bacteria, and is unable to grow autotrophically or fix molecular nitrogen. Here we analyze the draft genome sequence of Rhodobaca bogoriensis to gain further insight into the biology of this extremophilic purple bacterium. The strain LBB1T genome consists of 3.91 Mbp with no plasmids. The genome sequence supports the defining characteristics of strain LBB1T, including its (1) production of a light-harvesting 1-reaction center (LH1-RC) complex but lack of a peripheral (LH2) complex, (2) ability to synthesize unusual carotenoids, (3) capacity for both phototrophic (anoxic/light) and chemotrophic (oxic/dark) energy metabolisms, (4) utilization of a wide variety of organic compounds (including acetate in the absence of a glyoxylate cycle), (5) ability to oxidize both sulfide and thiosulfate despite lacking the capacity for autotrophic growth, and (6) absence of a functional nitrogen-fixation system for diazotrophic growth. The assortment of properties in Rhodobaca bogoriensis has no precedent among phototrophic purple bacteria, and the results are discussed in relation to the organism's soda lake habitat and evolutionary history.

Anaerobic 3-methylhopanoid production by an acidophilic photosynthetic purple bacterium.

Bacterial lipids are well-preserved in ancient rocks and certain ones have been used as indicators of specific bacterial metabolisms or environmental conditions existing at the time of rock deposition. Here we show that an anaerobic bacterium produces 3-methylhopanoids, pentacyclic lipids previously detected only in aerobic bacteria and widely used as biomarkers for methane-oxidizing bacteria. Both Rhodopila globiformis, a phototrophic purple nonsulfur bacterium isolated from an acidic warm spring in Yellowstone, and a newly isolated Rhodopila species from a geochemically similar spring in Lassen Volcanic National Park (USA), synthesized 3-methylhopanoids and a suite of related hopanoids and contained the genes encoding the necessary biosynthetic enzymes. Our results show that 3-methylhopanoids can be produced under anoxic conditions and challenges the use of 3-methylhopanoids as biomarkers of oxic conditions in ancient rocks and as prima facie evidence that methanotrophic bacteria were active when the rocks were deposited.

Xeropreservation of functionalized lipid biomarkers in hyperarid soils in the Atacama Desert.

Our understanding of long-term organic matter preservation comes mostly from studies in aquatic systems. In contrast, taphonomic processes in extremely dry environments are relatively understudied and are poorly understood. We investigated the accumulation and preservation of lipid biomarkers in hyperarid soils in the Yungay region of the Atacama Desert. Lipids from seven soil horizons in a 2.5 m vertical profile were extracted and analyzed using GC-MS and LC-MS. Diagnostic functionalized lipids and geolipids were detected and increased in abundance and diversity with depth. Deeper clay units contain fossil organic matter (radiocarbon dead) that has been protected from rainwater since the onset of hyperaridity. We show that these clay units contain lipids in an excellent state of structural preservation with functional groups and unsaturated bonds in carbon chains. This indicates that minimal degradation of lipids has occurred in these soils since the time of their deposition between >40,000 and 2 million years ago. The exceptional structural preservation of biomarkers is likely due to the long-term hyperaridity that has minimized microbial and enzymatic activity, a taphonomic process we term xeropreservation (i.e. preservation by drying). The degree of biomarker preservation allowed us to reconstruct major changes in ecology in the Yungay region that reflect a shift in hydrological regime from wet to dry since the early Quaternary. Our results suggest that hyperarid environments, which comprise 7.5% of the continental landmass, could represent a rich and relatively unexplored source of paleobiological information on Earth.

Enabling Data Discovery with the Astrobiology Resource Metadata Standard.

As scientific investigations increasingly adopt Open Science practices, reuse of data becomes paramount. However, despite decades of progress in internet search tools, finding relevant astrobiology datasets for an envisioned investigation remains challenging due to the precise and atypical needs of the astrobiology researcher. In response, we have developed the Astrobiology Resource Metadata Standard (ARMS), a metadata standard designed to uniformly describe astrobiology "resources," that is, virtually any product of astrobiology research. Those resources include datasets, physical samples, software (modeling codes and scripts), publications, websites, images, videos, presentations, and so on. ARMS has been formulated to describe astrobiology resources generated by individual scientists or smaller scientific teams, rather than larger mission teams who may be required to use more complex archival metadata schemes. In the following, we discuss the participatory development process, give an overview of the metadata standard, describe its current use in practice, and close with a discussion of additional possible uses and extensions.

Genomic Features of the Bundle-Forming Heliobacterium Heliophilum fasciatum.

Eight species of heliobacteria have had their genomes sequenced. However, only two of these genomes have been analyzed in detail, those from the thermophilic Heliomicrobium (Hmi.) modesticaldum and the alkaliphilic Heliorestis (Hrs.) convoluta. Here we present analyses of the draft genome sequence of a species of heliobacterium that grows optimally at a moderate temperature and neutral pH. The organism, Heliophilum (Hph.) fasciatum, is phylogenetically unique among cultured heliobacteria and was isolated from rice soil, a common habitat for heliobacteria. The Hph. fasciatum genome contains 3.14 Mbp-similar to that of other reported heliobacteria-but has a G+C base ratio that lies between that of Hmi. modesticaldum and Hrs. convoluta. Many of the genomic features of Hmi. modesticaldum and Hrs. convoluta, such as the absence of genes encoding autotrophic pathways, the presence of a superoperonal cluster of photosynthesis-related genes, and genes encoding endospore-specific proteins, are also characteristic of the Hph. fasciatum genome. However, despite the fact that Hph. fasciatum is diazotrophic, classical nif genes encoding the alpha and beta subunits of dinitrogenase (nifDK) present in other heliobacteria could not be identified. Instead, genes encoding several highly divergent NifDK homologs were present, at least one of which likely encodes a functional dinitrogenase and another a methylthio-alkane reductase (MarDK) for sulfur assimilation. A classical NifH (dinitrogenase reductase) homolog was also absent in Hph. fasciatum, but a related protein was identified that likely carries out this function as well as electron delivery to MarDK. The N2-fixing system of Hph. fasciatum is therefore distinct from that of other heliobacteria and may have unusual properties.

Discovery of Chlorophyll d: Isolation and Characterization of a Far-Red Cyanobacterium from the Original Site of Manning and Strain (1943) at Moss Beach, California.

We have isolated a chlorophyll-d-containing cyanobacterium from the intertidal field site at Moss Beach, on the coast of Central California, USA, where Manning and Strain (1943) originally discovered this far-red chlorophyll. Here, we present the cyanobacterium's environmental description, culturing procedure, pigment composition, ultrastructure, and full genome sequence. Among cultures of far-red cyanobacteria obtained from red algae from the same site, this strain was an epiphyte on a brown macroalgae. Its Qyin vivo absorbance peak is centered at 704-705 nm, the shortest wavelength observed thus far among the various known Acaryochloris strains. Its Chl a/Chl d ratio was 0.01, with Chl d accounting for 99% of the total Chl d and Chl a mass. TEM imagery indicates the absence of phycobilisomes, corroborated by both pigment spectra and genome analysis. The Moss Beach strain codes for only a single set of genes for producing allophycocyanin. Genomic sequencing yielded a 7.25 Mbp circular chromosome and 10 circular plasmids ranging from 16 kbp to 394 kbp. We have determined that this strain shares high similarity with strain S15, an epiphyte of red algae, while its distinct gene complement and ecological niche suggest that this strain could be the closest known relative to the original Chl d source of Manning and Strain (1943). The Moss Beach strain is designated Acaryochloris sp. (marina) strain Moss Beach.

High-Quality Genome-Scale Models From Error-Prone, Long-Read Assemblies.

Advances in nanopore-based sequencing techniques have enabled rapid characterization of genomes and transcriptomes. An emerging application of this sequencing technology is point-of-care characterization of pathogenic bacteria. However, genome assessments alone are unable to provide a complete understanding of the pathogenic phenotype. Genome-scale metabolic reconstruction and analysis is a bottom-up Systems Biology technique that has elucidated the phenotypic nuances of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria and other human pathogens. Combining these genome-scale models (GEMs) with point-of-care nanopore sequencing is a promising strategy for combating the emerging health challenge of AMR pathogens. However, the sequencing errors inherent to the nanopore technique may negatively affect the quality, and therefore the utility, of GEMs reconstructed from nanopore assemblies. Here we describe and validate a workflow for rapid construction of GEMs from nanopore (MinION) derived assemblies. Benchmarking the pipeline against a high-quality reference GEM of Escherichia coli K-12 resulted in nanopore-derived models that were >99% complete even at sequencing depths of less than 10× coverage. Applying the pipeline to clinical isolates of pathogenic bacteria resulted in strain-specific GEMs that identified canonical AMR genome content and enabled simulations of strain-specific microbial growth. Additionally, we show that treating the sequencing run as a mock metagenome did not degrade the quality of models derived from metagenome assemblies. Taken together, this study demonstrates that combining nanopore sequencing with GEM construction pipelines enables rapid, in situ characterization of microbial metabolism.

Exoplanet Biosignatures: At the Dawn of a New Era of Planetary Observations.

The rapid rate of discoveries of exoplanets has expanded the scope of the science possible for the remote detection of life beyond Earth. The Exoplanet Biosignatures Workshop Without Walls (EBWWW) held in 2016 engaged the international scientific community across diverse scientific disciplines, to assess the state of the science and technology in the search for life on exoplanets, and to identify paths for progress. The workshop activities resulted in five major review papers, which provide (1) an encyclopedic review of known and proposed biosignatures and models used to ascertain them (Schwieterman et al., 2018 in this issue); (2) an in-depth review of O2 as a biosignature, rigorously examining the nuances of false positives and false negatives for evidence of life (Meadows et al., 2018 in this issue); (3) a Bayesian framework to comprehensively organize current understanding to quantify confidence in biosignature assessments (Catling et al., 2018 in this issue); (4) an extension of that Bayesian framework in anticipation of increasing planetary data and novel concepts of biosignatures (Walker et al., 2018 in this issue); and (5) a review of the upcoming telescope capabilities to characterize exoplanets and their environment (Fujii et al., 2018 in this issue). Because of the immense content of these review papers, this summary provides a guide to their complementary scope and highlights salient features. Strong themes that emerged from the workshop were that biosignatures must be interpreted in the context of their environment, and that frameworks must be developed to link diverse forms of scientific understanding of that context to quantify the likelihood that a biosignature has been observed. Models are needed to explore the parameter space where measurements will be widespread but sparse in detail. Given the technological prospects for large ground-based telescopes and space-based observatories, the detection of atmospheric signatures of a few potentially habitable planets may come before 2030. Key Words: Exoplanets-Biosignatures-Remote observation-Spectral imaging-Bayesian analysis. Astrobiology 18, 619-626.

Exoplanet Biosignatures: A Review of Remotely Detectable Signs of Life.

In the coming years and decades, advanced space- and ground-based observatories will allow an unprecedented opportunity to probe the atmospheres and surfaces of potentially habitable exoplanets for signatures of life. Life on Earth, through its gaseous products and reflectance and scattering properties, has left its fingerprint on the spectrum of our planet. Aided by the universality of the laws of physics and chemistry, we turn to Earth's biosphere, both in the present and through geologic time, for analog signatures that will aid in the search for life elsewhere. Considering the insights gained from modern and ancient Earth, and the broader array of hypothetical exoplanet possibilities, we have compiled a comprehensive overview of our current understanding of potential exoplanet biosignatures, including gaseous, surface, and temporal biosignatures. We additionally survey biogenic spectral features that are well known in the specialist literature but have not yet been robustly vetted in the context of exoplanet biosignatures. We briefly review advances in assessing biosignature plausibility, including novel methods for determining chemical disequilibrium from remotely obtainable data and assessment tools for determining the minimum biomass required to maintain short-lived biogenic gases as atmospheric signatures. We focus particularly on advances made since the seminal review by Des Marais et al. The purpose of this work is not to propose new biosignature strategies, a goal left to companion articles in this series, but to review the current literature, draw meaningful connections between seemingly disparate areas, and clear the way for a path forward. Key Words: Exoplanets-Biosignatures-Habitability markers-Photosynthesis-Planetary surfaces-Atmospheres-Spectroscopy-Cryptic biospheres-False positives. Astrobiology 18, 663-708.

Exoplanet Biosignatures: Understanding Oxygen as a Biosignature in the Context of Its Environment.

We describe how environmental context can help determine whether oxygen (O2) detected in extrasolar planetary observations is more likely to have a biological source. Here we provide an in-depth, interdisciplinary example of O2 biosignature identification and observation, which serves as the prototype for the development of a general framework for biosignature assessment. Photosynthetically generated O2 is a potentially strong biosignature, and at high abundance, it was originally thought to be an unambiguous indicator for life. However, as a biosignature, O2 faces two major challenges: (1) it was only present at high abundance for a relatively short period of Earth's history and (2) we now know of several potential planetary mechanisms that can generate abundant O2 without life being present. Consequently, our ability to interpret both the presence and absence of O2 in an exoplanetary spectrum relies on understanding the environmental context. Here we examine the coevolution of life with the early Earth's environment to identify how the interplay of sources and sinks may have suppressed O2 release into the atmosphere for several billion years, producing a false negative for biologically generated O2. These studies suggest that planetary characteristics that may enhance false negatives should be considered when selecting targets for biosignature searches. We review the most recent knowledge of false positives for O2, planetary processes that may generate abundant atmospheric O2 without a biosphere. We provide examples of how future photometric, spectroscopic, and time-dependent observations of O2 and other aspects of the planetary environment can be used to rule out false positives and thereby increase our confidence that any observed O2 is indeed a biosignature. These insights will guide and inform the development of future exoplanet characterization missions. Key Words: Biosignatures-Oxygenic photosynthesis-Exoplanets-Planetary atmospheres. Astrobiology 18, 630-662.

Constraints on the Metabolic Activity of Microorganisms in Atacama Surface Soils Inferred from Refractory Biomarkers: Implications for Martian Habitability and Biomarker Detection.

Dryness is one of the main environmental challenges to microbial survival. Understanding the threshold of microbial tolerance to extreme dryness is relevant to better constrain the environmental limits of life on Earth and critically evaluate long-term habitability models of Mars. Biomolecular proxies for microbial adaptation and growth were measured in Mars-like hyperarid surface soils in the Atacama Desert that experience only a few millimeters of precipitation per decade, and in biologically active soils a few hundred kilometers away that experience two- to fivefold more precipitation. Diversity and abundance of lipids and other biomolecules decreased with increasing dryness. Cyclopropane fatty acids (CFAs), which are indicative of adaptive response to environmental stress and growth in bacteria, were only detected in the wetter surface soils. The ratio of trans to cis isomers of an unsaturated fatty acid, another bacterial stress indicator, decreased with increasingly dry conditions. Aspartic acid racemization ratios increased from 0.01 in the wetter soils to 0.1 in the driest soils, which is indicative of racemization rates comparable to de novo biosynthesis over long timescales (∼10,000 years). The content and integrity of stress proteins profiled by immunoassays were additional indicators that biomass in the driest soils is not recycled at significant levels. Together, our results point to minimal or no in situ microbial growth in the driest surface soils of the Atacama, and any metabolic activity is likely to be basal for cellular repair and maintenance only. Our data add to a growing body of evidence that the driest Atacama surface soils represent a threshold for long-term habitability (i.e., growth and reproduction). These results place constraints on the potential for extant life on the surface of Mars, which is 100-1000 times drier than the driest regions in the Atacama. Key Words: Atacama Desert-Dryness-Growth-Habitability-Biomarker-Mars. Astrobiology 18, 955-966.

Production and early preservation of lipid biomarkers in iron hot springs.

The bicarbonate-buffered anoxic vent waters at Chocolate Pots hot springs in Yellowstone National Park are 51-54°C, pH 5.5-6.0, and are very high in dissolved Fe(II) at 5.8-5.9 mg/L. The aqueous Fe(II) is oxidized by a combination of biotic and abiotic mechanisms and precipitated as primary siliceous nanophase iron oxyhydroxides (ferrihydrite). Four distinct prokaryotic photosynthetic microbial mat types grow on top of these iron deposits. Lipids were used to characterize the community composition of the microbial mats, link source organisms to geologically significant biomarkers, and investigate how iron mineralization degrades the lipid signature of the community. The phospholipid and glycolipid fatty acid profiles of the highest-temperature mats indicate that they are dominated by cyanobacteria and green nonsulfur filamentous anoxygenic phototrophs (FAPs). Diagnostic lipid biomarkers of the cyanobacteria include midchain branched mono- and dimethylalkanes and, most notably, 2-methylbacteriohopanepolyol. Diagnostic lipid biomarkers of the FAPs (Chloroflexus and Roseiflexus spp.) include wax esters and a long-chain tri-unsaturated alkene. Surprisingly, the lipid biomarkers resisted the earliest stages of microbial degradation and diagenesis to survive in the iron oxides beneath the mats. Understanding the potential of particular sedimentary environments to capture and preserve fossil biosignatures is of vital importance in the selection of the best landing sites for future astrobiological missions to Mars. This study explores the nature of organic degradation processes in moderately thermal Fe(II)-rich groundwater springs--environmental conditions that have been previously identified as highly relevant for Mars exploration.

The role of biofilms in the sedimentology of actively forming gypsum deposits at Guerrero Negro, Mexico.

Actively forming gypsum deposits at the Guerrero Negro sabkha and saltern system provided habitats for stratified, pigmented microbial communities that exhibited significant morphological and phylogenetic diversity. These deposits ranged from meter-thick gypsum crusts forming in saltern seawater concentration ponds to columnar microbial mats with internally crystallized gypsum granules developing in natural anchialine pools. Gypsum-depositing environments were categorized as forming precipitation surfaces, biofilm-supported surfaces, and clastic surfaces. Each surface type was described in terms of depositional environment, microbial diversity, mineralogy, and sedimentary fabrics. Precipitation surfaces developed in high-salinity subaqueous environments where rates of precipitation outpaced the accumulation of clastic, organic, and/or biofilm layers. These surfaces hosted endolithic biofilms comprised predominantly of oxygenic and anoxygenic phototrophs, sulfate-reducing bacteria, and bacteria from the phylum Bacteroidetes. Biofilm-supported deposits developed in lower-salinity subaqueous environments where light and low water-column turbulence supported dense benthic microbial communities comprised mainly of oxygenic phototrophs. In these settings, gypsum granules precipitated in the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix as individual granules exhibiting distinctive morphologies. Clastic surfaces developed in sabkha mudflats that included gypsum, carbonate, and siliclastic particles with thin gypsum/biofilm components. Clastic surfaces were influenced by subsurface brine sheets and capillary evaporation and precipitated subsedimentary gypsum discs in deeper regions. Biofilms appeared to influence both chemical and physical sedimentary processes in the various subaqueous and subaerially exposed environments studied. Biofilm interaction with chemical sedimentary processes included dissolution and granularization of precipitation surfaces, formation of gypsum crystals with equant and distorted habits, and precipitation of trace carbonate and oxide phases. Fine-scale wrinkle structures visible in clastic surfaces of sabkha environments offered evidence of the biofilm's role in physical sedimentary processes. These findings are highly relevant to astrobiology because they expand and refine the known characteristics of gypsum deposits, including their biological components.