Genetic variability among and within domestic Old and New World camels at the α-lactalbumin gene (LALBA) reveals new alleles and polymorphisms responsible for differential expression.

α-Lactalbumin (α-LA), which is encoded by the LALBA gene, is a major whey protein that binds to Ca2+ and facilitates lactose synthesis as a regulatory subunit of the synthase enzyme complex. In addition, it has been shown to play central roles in immune modulation, cell-growth regulation, and antimicrobial activity. In this study, a multitechnical approach was used to fully characterize the LALBA gene and its variants in both coding and regulatory regions for domestic camelids (dromedary, Bactrian camel, alpaca, and llama). The gene analysis revealed a conserved structure among the camelids, but a slight difference in size (2,012 bp on average) due to intronic variations. Promoters were characterized for the transcription factor binding sites (11 found in total). Intraspecies sequence comparison showed 36 SNPs in total (2 in the dromedary, none in the Bactrian camel, 22 in the alpaca, and 12 in the llama), whereas interspecies comparison showed 86 additional polymorphic sites. Eight SNPs were identified as trans-specific polymorphisms, and 2 of them (g.112A>G and g.1229A>G) were particularly interesting in the New World camels. The first creates a new binding site for transcription factor SP1. An enhancing effect of the g.112G variant on the expression was demonstrated by 3 independent pGL3 gene reporter assays. The latter is responsible for the p.78Ile>Val AA replacement and represents novel allelic variants (named LALBA A and B). A link to protein variants has been established by isoelectric focusing (IEF), and bioinformatics analysis revealed that carriers of valine (g.1229G) have a higher glycosylation rate. Genotyping methods based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) were set up for both SNPs. Overall, adenine was more frequent (0.54 and 0.76) at both loci. Four haplotypes were found, and the AA and GA were the most common with a frequency of 0.403 and 0.365, respectively. Conversely, a putative biological gain characterizes the haplotype GG. Therefore, opportunities for rapid directional selection can be realized if this haplotype is associated with favorable milk protein properties. This study adds knowledge at the gene and protein level for α-LA (LALBA) in camelids and importantly contributes to a relatively unexplored research area in these species.

A novel allelic donkey ß-lactoglobulin I protein isoform generated by a non-AUG translation initiation codon is associated with a nonsynonymous SNP.

ß-lactoglobulin I (ß-LG I) is one of the most important whey proteins in donkey milk. However, to our knowledge, there has been no study focusing on the full nucleotide sequences of this gene (BLG I). Current investigation of donkey BLG I gene is very limited with only 2 variants (A and B) characterized so far at the protein level. Recently, a new ß-LG I variant, with a significantly higher mass (+1,915 Da) than known variants has been detected. In this study, we report the whole nucleotide sequence of the BLG I gene from 2 donkeys, whose milk samples are characterized by the ß-LG I SDS-PAGE band with a normal electrophoretic mobility (18,514.25 Da, ß-LG I B1 form) the first, and by the presence of a unique ß-LG I band with a higher electrophoretic mobility (20,428.5 Da, ß-LG I D form) the latter. A high genetic variability was found all over the 2 sequenced BLG I alleles. In particular, 16 polymorphic sites were found in introns, one in the 5' flanking region, 3 SNPs in the 5' untranslated region and one SNP in the coding region (g.1871G > A) located at the 40th nucleotide of exon 2 and responsible for the AA substitutions p.Asp28 > Asn in the mature protein. Two SNPs (g.920-922CAC > TGT and g.1871G/A) were genotyped in 93 donkeys of 2 Italian breeds (60 Ragusana and 33 Amiatina, respectively) and the overall frequencies of g.920-922CAC and g.1871A were 0.3065 and 0.043, respectively. Only the rare allele g.1871A was observed to be associated with the slower migrating ß-LG I. Considering this genetic diversity and those found in the database, it was possible to deduce at least 5 different alleles (BLG I A, B, B1, C, D) responsible for 4 potential ß-LG I translations. Among these alleles, B1 and D are those characterized in the present research, with the D allele of real novel identification. Haplotype data analysis suggests an evolutionary pathway of donkey BLG I gene and a possible phylogenetic map is proposed. Analyses of mRNA secondary structure showed relevant changes in the structures, as consequence of the g.1871G > A polymorphism, that might be responsible for the recognition of an alternative initiation site providing an additional signal peptide. The extension of 19 AA sequence to the mature protein, corresponding to the canonical signal peptide with an additional alanine residue, is sufficient to provide the observed molecular weight of the slower migrating ß-LG I encoded by the BLG I D allele.

Tunisian camel casein gene characterization reveals similarities and differences with Sudanese and Nigerian populations.

Milk is a primary protein source that has always played a role in mammalian health. Despite the intensification of research projects on dromedary and the knowledge of the genetic diversity at the casein loci, the genetic structure of the Tunisian camel population still needs exploration. This study sought to determine the genetic diversity of 3 casein gene variants in 5 Tunisian camel ecotypes: c.150G>T at CSN1S1 (αS1-casein), g.2126A>G at CSN2 (ß-casein), and g.1029T>C at CSN3 (κ-casein). The obtained results were compared with data published on Sudanese and Nigerian camels to establish the level of differentiation within and between populations. A total of 159 blood samples were collected from 5 Tunisian camel ecotypes and the extracted DNA was genotyped by PCR-RFLP. A streamlined genotyping protocol was also developed for CSN3. Results indicated that allele T was quite rare (0.06) at CSN1S1 for all ecotypes. Minor allele frequency was found for G (0.462) in CSN2 except for Ardhaoui Medenine ecotype who deviated from the average CSN2 allele frequency of the total population. Allele C showed minor allele frequency of 0.384 in CSN3. Among the Tunisian population, GAT (0.343) was the most represented haplotype in all ecotypes except for Ardhaoui Medenine, where GGC (0.322) was the most frequent one. Significant differences in heterozygosity and local inbreeding were observed across the Tunisian, Sudanese, and Nigerian populations, although the global fixation index indicated that only 2.2% of the genetic variance is related to ecotype differences. Instead, phylogenetic analysis revealed a closer link between the Tunisian and Sudanese populations through a clade subdivision with 3 main branches among the ecotypes. This study represents the first attempt to understand casein gene variability in Tunisian camels; with further study, milk traits and genetic differentiation among populations can be associated with the history of camel domestication.

Sequencing of lipoprotein lipase gene in the Mediterranean river buffalo identified novel variants affecting gene expression.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is a key enzyme for lipid metabolism, playing a fundamental role in the composition of fat in adipose tissue and milk. The LPL gene has been seldom investigated in dairy ruminants and barely studied in river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). The aim of this work was to explore the genetic diversity of LPL and its promoter and to identify functional mutations, using a combined approach based on sequencing, dual-color electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and quantitative PCR. Thirteen consensus sequences for transcription factors were found in the promoter. Eleven SNP were detected, and the attention was focused on the SNP with potential functional effects: g.-446A>G, because the presence of G created a consensus motif for the transcription factor Sp1, and g.107A>G, which was the only exonic SNP. We developed PCR-RFLP methods for genotyping the 2 SNP and calculated the allele frequencies. A strong linkage disequilibrium (D' = 1; r2 = 0.903) was found between the 2 SNP. The dual-color electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that only genotype g.-446GG allowed the binding of the Sp1 transcription factor, resulting in overexpression of the gene (~2.5 fold), as confirmed by the quantitative PCR results. Haploinsufficiency is proposed as a regulation mechanism. This study adds further knowledge on the structure of the LPL gene and its expression in river buffalo, with potential effects on milk qualitative and quantitative production.

The single nucleotide polymorphism g.133A>C in the stearoyl CoA desaturase gene (SCD) promoter affects gene expression and quali-quantitative properties of river buffalo milk.

The stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) gene has been investigated in depth in ruminants because of its effect on milk fat composition. In river buffalo, the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) g.133A>C in the gene promoter has been associated with milk quality and yield. However, the biological reason for such effects remains unexplored. In this study, we combined mRNA profile analysis, an electromobility shift assay, and quantitative PCR to elucidate the role of this SNP on gene transcription and its effects on milk fat traits. A preliminary genotyping of g.133A>C was carried out on a group of 303 river buffaloes to choose individuals for the downstream applications. Analysis of allele frequencies showed an increase in the minor allele C (0.25) compared with previous findings (0.16). Six animals (2 for each genotype) were chosen for cloning and 216 positive cDNA recombinant clones for SCD (72 per genotype) were analyzed by PCR. All clones showed the same length on agarose gel; therefore, random clones were chosen for sequencing. No qualitative differences were found and all gene transcripts assembled correctly. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay was performed to evaluate the binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to DNA sequences including g.133A>C. Genotype CC showed a higher binding (mean ± standard error of the mean) than genotype AA in 2 different conditions [Enzo buffer (EB), Enzo Life Science Inc., Farmingdale, NY: 201.77 ± 4.06 vs. 141.65 ± 3.77 band intensity values and Poletto buffer (PB): 95.90 ± 1.15 vs. 67.30 ± 2.14 band intensity values]. The subsequent quantitative PCR confirmed the upregulation of the CC genotype compared with the AA and AC genotypes. The association study with milk fat traits revealed a favorable effect of allele C. The heterozygous genotype had the highest values for monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9), polyunsaturated fatty acids, and odd- and branched-chain fatty acids, and the lowest values for saturated fatty acids and atherogenic and thrombogenic indices; the heterozygous genotype differed significantly from the AA genotype. The AC genotype has previously been associated with higher milk yield. Therefore, the g.133A>C SNP is a marker with dual effects and is an interesting candidate for assisted selection programs in river buffalo. These data clarified the biological role of the SNP g.133A>C in the SCD promoter and how it affects gene function, providing important knowledge on the genetic background of lipid metabolism, including the future possibility of selecting alleles with quantitatively or qualitatively favorable effects.

Remarkable genetic diversity detected at river buffalo prolactin receptor (PRLR) gene and association studies with milk fatty acid composition.

Prolactin is an anterior pituitary peptide hormone involved in many different endocrine activities and is essential for reproductive performance. This action is mediated by its receptor, the prolactin receptor, encoded by the PRLR gene. In this study, we sequenced and characterized the Mediterranean river buffalo PRLR gene (from exon 3 to 10), and we found remarkable genetic diversity. In particular, we found 24 intronic polymorphisms and 13 exonic SNPs, seven of which were non-synonymous. Furthermore, the polymorphisms identified in the 3'-UTR were investigated to establish their possible influence on microRNA binding sites. Considering all the amino acid changes and the observed allelic combinations, it is possible to deduce at least six different translations of the buffalo prolactin receptor and, consequently, the presence at the PRLR gene of at least six alleles. Furthermore, we identified a deletion of a CACTACC heptamer between nucleotides 1102 and 1103 of exon 10 (3'-UTR), and we developed an allele-specific PCR to identify the carriers of this genetic marker. Finally, the SNP g.11188A>G, detected in exon 10 and responsible for the amino acid replacement p.His328Arg, was genotyped in 308 Italian Mediterranean river buffaloes, and an association study with milk fat traits was carried out. The statistical analysis showed a tendency that approached significance for the AA genotype with higher contents of odd branched-chain fatty acids. Thus, our results suggest that the PRLR gene is a good candidate for gene association studies with qualitative traits related to buffalo milk production.

Lama glama αS1-casein: Identification of new polymorphisms in the CSN1S1 gene.

South American camelids have been poorly genetically investigated and little information is available in llamas (Lama glama) regarding the diversity of the caseins at the protein and gene level. Exon skipping and duplication events previously reported in the αS1-casein gene (CSN1S1) led us to investigate the genetic variability at this locus. Seventy-two positive clones for the αS1-casein transcripts were analyzed and randomly sequenced. The comparative analysis of the sequences revealed 2 transitions, c.366A>G and c.690T>C, at the 10th nucleotide of exon 12 and 94 bp of exon 19, respectively. These SNP are responsible for 2 amino acid changes, Ile→Val in position 86 and Tyr→His in position 194 of the mature protein. Both polymorphisms clarify the genetic events behind the protein variants A and B. This result was confirmed by isoelectric focusing analysis of llama milk samples. Quick methods based on PCR-RFLP and allele-specific PCR were set up for allelic discrimination in a population of 128 animals. Based on genotyping results, 4 haplotypes were observed and the estimated frequencies indicated B as the most common haplotype (0.629) in the investigated population. These data add knowledge to the genetic variability of a species little investigated, and open opportunity for new investigation in the field of milk protein for South American camelids, including the possibility, in the future, to select alleles with favorable characteristics.

Transcript analysis at DGAT1 reveals different mRNA profiles in river buffaloes with extreme phenotypes for milk fat.

Buffalo DGAT1 (diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1) was mainly investigated for the characterization of the gene itself and for the identification of the K232A polymorphism, similar to what has been accomplished in cattle, although no information has been reported so far at the mRNA level. The importance of DGAT1 for lipid metabolism led us to investigate the transcript profiles of lactating buffaloes characterized as high (9.13 ± 0.23) and low (7.94 ± 0.29) for milk fat percentage, and to explore the genetic diversity at the RNA and DNA level. A total of 336 positive clones for the DGAT1 cDNA were analyzed by PCR and chosen for sequencing according to the differences in length. The clone assembling revealed a very complex mRNA pattern with a total of 21 transcripts differently represented in the 2 groups of animals. Apart from the correct transcript (17 exons long), the skipping of exon 12 is the most significant in terms of distribution of clones with 11.6% difference between the 2 groups, whereas a totally different mRNA profile was found in approximately 12% of clones. The sequencing of genomic DNA allowed the identification of 10 polymorphic sites at the intron level, which clarify, at least partially, the genetic events behind the production of complex mRNA. Genetic diversity was found also at the exon level. The single nucleotide polymorphism c.1053C>T represents the first example of polymorphism in a coding region for the DGAT1 in the Italian Mediterranean breed. To establish whether this polymorphism is present in other buffalo breeds, a quick method based on PCR-RFLP was set up for allelic discrimination in the Italian Mediterranean and the Romanian Murrah (200 animals in total). The alleles were equally represented in the overall population, whereas the analysis of the 2 breeds showed different frequencies, likely indicating diverse genetic structure of the 2 breeds. The T allele might be considered as the ancestral condition of the DGAT1 gene, being present in the great part of the sequenced species. These data add knowledge at the transcript and genetic levels for the buffalo DGAT1 and open the opportunity for further investigation of other genes involved in milk fat metabolism for the river buffalo, including the future possibility of selecting alleles with quantitative or qualitative favorable effects (or both).

Wingless-type MMTV integration site family member 2 (WNT2) gene is associated with resistance to MAP in faecal culture and antibody response in Holstein cattle.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) is a pathogenic bacterium responsible for the lethal Johne's disease in cattle. So far, several genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been carried out to identify chromosomal regions highly associated with Johne's disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic variability within a pool of seven genes (LAMB1, DLD, WNT2, PRDM1, SOCS5, PTGER4 and IL10) indicated by former GWAS/RNA-Seq studies as putatively associated with MAP infections and to achieve a confirmation study of association with paratuberculosis susceptibility in a population of 324 German Holstein cattle (162 cases MAP positive and 162 controls MAP negative) using ELISA and fecal cultural tests. SNP validation and genotyping information are provided, quick methods for allelic discrimination were set up and transcription factor binding analyses were performed. The rs43390642:G>TSNP in the WNT2 promoter region is associated with paratuberculosis susceptibility (P = 0.013), suggesting a protective role of the T allele (P = 0.043; odds ratio 0.50 [0.25-0.97]). The linkage disequilibrium with the DLD rs134692583:A>T might suggest a combined mechanism of action of these neighboring genes in resistance to MAP infection, which is also supported by a significant effect shown by the haplotype DLD(T) /WNT2(T) (P = 0.047). In silico analysis predicted rs43390642:G>T and rs134692583:A>T as essential parts of binding sites for the transcription factors GR, C/EBPß and GATA-1, hence suggesting a potential influence on WNT2 and DLD gene expression. This study confirmed the region on BTA 4 (UMD 3.1: 50639460-51397892) as involved in tolerance/resistance to Johne's disease. In addition, this study clarifies the involvement of the investigated genes in MAP infection and contributes to the understanding of genetic variability involved in Johne's disease susceptibility.

Dual-color high-resolution fiber-FISH analysis on lethal white syndrome carriers in sheep.

Molecular defects occurring in the endothelin receptor type-B (EDNRB) gene are known to be associated with pigmentary anomalies and intestinal aganglionosis in humans, rodents and horses. We carried out a cytogenetic investigation in 2 ewes heterozygous for the deletion of the EDNRB gene and in 2 more females as control. The RBA-banding showed that all 4 ewes were karyologically normal. EDNRB gene-specific probes were produced by PCR and cloning. The application of the R-banding and propidium iodide-staining fluorescent in situ hybridization allowed mapping the gene to OAR 10q22 and confirmed the heterozygous status of the ewes investigated for the EDNRB gene deletion. For the fine estimation of the gene length in sheep and for the correct sizing of the chromosomal gap, a dual-color FISH was applied to high-resolution DNA fibers in combination with digital imaging microscopy. The comparison of the DNA fiber barcodes indicated a chromosomal deletion larger than the EDNRB gene itself. The length of the gene, not known for sheep until now, was estimated to be ∼21 kb, whereas the microchromosomal deletion was ∼100 kb. EDNRB is located in a chromosomal region previously shown to be a fragile site. The applied method allowed locating the potential breakpoints, thus permitting further interesting prospective investigations also in the field of the fragile sites in sheep.

Short communication: Translational efficiency of casein transcripts in Mediterranean river buffalo.

Buffalo milk is characterized by the presence of all 4 casein fractions (α(S1), ß, α(S2), and κ) encoded by the 4 tightly linked autosomal genes (CSN1S1, CSN2, CSN1S2, and CSN3, respectively). In the present paper, we report for the first time a quantitative characterization of buffalo casein transcripts and show that the 4 genes are not transcribed and translated with the same efficiency. In particular, the analysis of individual milk samples obtained from 9 Mediterranean river buffaloes showed that the most abundant casein fractions were ß (53.45%) and α(S1) (20.61%), followed by α(S2) and κ, at 14.28 and 11.66%, respectively. Quantification of the corresponding mRNA showed that the percentage of transcripts of the 4 caseins was 16.48, 23.18, 55.87, and 4.47% for α(S1), ß, α(S2), and κ, respectively. Translation efficiency was 0.25 for CSN1S2, 1.31 for CSN1S1, 2.39 for CSN2, and 2.69 for the CSN3 transcripts, respectively. A comparison of nucleotide sequences with the Kozak consensus sequence was also carried out to investigate if the mRNA sequences might be responsible for the observed differences.

Sequence analysis and genetic variability of stearoyl CoA desaturase (SCD) gene in the Italian Mediterranean river buffalo.

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) plays a key metabolic role by changing the saturated FA content of ruminant milk and meat. In this study we characterized for the first time the stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) gene in river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and investigated its genetic variability. On a total of 78 buffaloes, 15 SNPs were detected and 6 of them were preliminarily genotyped. In particular, the g.133A>C SNP was found to create a new consensus site for the SP1 binding site, thus generating a new tandem repeat in the promoter region. A preliminary association study with the milk fatty acid content showed that the C allele significantly affects the total desaturation index (P<0.01). Linkage disequilibrium analysis allowed identification of 7 haplotypes and 4 tag SNPs. Such polymorphisms could represent useful genetic markers for association studies with fatty acid composition, but further studies are needed to evaluate their potential use to improve the nutritional quality of the dairy products.

Genome-wide association and pathway analysis of carcass and meat quality traits in Piemontese young bulls.

A key concern in beef production is how to improve carcass and meat quality traits. Identifying the genomic regions and biological pathways that contribute to explaining variability in these traits is of great importance for selection purposes. In this study, genome wide-association (GWAS) and pathway-based analyses of carcass traits (age at slaughter (AS), carcass weight (CW), carcass daily gain (CDG), conformation score and rib-eye muscle area) and meat quality traits (pH, Warner-Bratzler shear force, purge loss, cooking loss and colour parameters (lightness, redness, yellowness, chroma, hue)) were conducted using genotype data from the 'GeneSeek Genomic Profiler Bovine LD' array in a cohort of 1166 double-muscled Piemontese beef cattle. The genome wide-association analysis was based on the GRAMMAR-GC approach and identified 37 significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which were associated with 12 traits (P<5 × 10-5). In particular, 14 SNPs associated with CW, CDG and AS were located at 38.57 to 38.94 Mb on Bos taurus autosome 6 and mapped within four genes, that is, Leucine Aminopeptidase 3, Family with Sequence Similarity 184 Member B, Non-SMC Condensin I Complex Subunit G and Ligand-Dependent Nuclear Receptor Corepressor-Like. Strong pairwise linkage disequilibrium was found in this region. For meat quality traits, most associations were 1 SNP per trait, except for a signal on BTA25 (at ~11.96 Mb), which was significant for four of the five meat colour parameters assessed. Gene-set enrichment analyses yielded significant results for six traits (right-sided hypergeometric test, false discovery rate <0.05). In particular, several pathways related to transmembrane transport (i.e., oxygen, calcium, ion and cation) were overrepresented for meat colour parameters. The results obtained provide useful information for genomic selection for beef production and quality in the Piemontese breed.

X-Y sperm aneuploidy in 2 cattle (Bos taurus) breeds as determined by dual color fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH).

The present study was undertaken to investigate aneuploidy rates in the sperm populations of 2 cattle (Bos taurus) breeds by using dual color fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with Xcen and Y chromosome-specific painting probes, obtained by chromosome microdissection and DOP-PCR. Frozen semen from 10 Italian Friesian and 10 Italian Brown testing bulls was used for the investigation. For each bull, more than 5,000 sperm were analyzed, for a total of 52,586 and 51,342 sperm cells for the 2 breeds, respectively. The present study revealed - in both breeds - a preponderance of the Y-bearing sperm compared to the X-bearing sperm. Within each breed, a statistically significant variation in the various classes of aneuploidy (XX, YY and XY) was found: differences were found in the Friesian breed among the 3 diploidy classes, and in the Brown breed, among the 3 disomy classes (p < 0.05) as well as among the 3 diploidy classes (p < 0.01). However, the 2 breeds did not differ significantly in the overall mean rates of X-Y aneuploidy (disomy + diploidy) which amounts to 0.162% in the Italian Friesian and 0.142% in the Italian Brown. When meiosis I (MI) and II (MII) errors were compared, statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) were found in the disomy classes and in both breeds, whereas the differences between diploidy classes were not significant. Compared to humans, a lower level of aneuploidy has been found in the domestic species analyzed so far. The present study contributes to the establishment of a baseline level of aneuploidy in the sperm populations of 2 cattle breeds which could be used for monitoring future trends of reproductive health, especially in relation to environmental changes and mutagens.

Chromosomal expression and localization of aphidicolin-induced fragile sites in the standard karyotype of river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

The present study reports on the chromosomal expression and localization of aphidicolin-induced fragile sites in the standard karyotype of river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis, 2n = 50) with the aim of establishing a 'fragile site map' of the species. Totally, 400 aphidicolin-induced breakages were analyzed from eight young and clinically healthy animals, four males and four females; these breakages were localized in 106 RBG-negative chromosome bands or at the band-interband regions. The number of breakages per chromosome did not vary statistically 'among' the animals investigated but the differences among individual chromosomes were highly significant thus indicating that the chromosomal distribution of the breakages is not random and appears only partially related to chromosome length. Fragile sites were statistically determined as those chromosomal bands showing three or more breakages. In the river buffalo karyotype, 51 fragile sites were detected and localized on the standardized ideogram of the species. The most fragile bands were as follows: 9q213 with 24 breakages out of 400; 19q21 with 16, 17q21 and inacXq24 with 15, 15q23 with 13 and 13q23 with 12 breaks, respectively. Previous gene mapping analysis in this species has revealed that the closest loci to these fragile sites contain genes such as RASA1 and CAST (9q214), NPR3 and C9 (19q19), PLP and BTK (Xq24-q25), OarCP09 (15q24), and EDNRB (13q22) whose mutations are responsible for severe phenotypic malformations and immunodeficiency in humans as well as in mice and meat quality in pigs. Further cytogenetic and molecular studies are needed to fully exploit the biological significance of the fragile sites in karyotype evolution of domestic animals and their relationships with productive and reproductive efficiency of livestock.

An SNP in the goat CSN2 promoter region is associated with the absence of beta-casein in milk.

So far, at least eight alleles in the goat CSN2 locus have been associated with the level of beta-casein expression in milk. Alleles CSN2(A), CSN2(A1), CSN2(B), CSN2(C), CSN2(D) and CSN2(E) have been associated with normal content (allele effects of about 5 g of beta-casein per litre), whereas the CSN2(0) and CSN2(01) alleles have been associated with non-detectable levels of beta-casein. Most of these alleles have been characterized genetically. Herein, we report the identification of a previously unreported SNP in the goat CSN2 promoter region (AJ011018:g.1311T>C), which is associated with the absence of beta-casein in the milk. Furthermore, we developed a PCR-based method that allows detection of this mutation.

The ß-casein in camels: molecular characterization of the CSN2 gene, promoter analysis and genetic variability.

The ß-casein is the most abundant protein in camel milk and its encoding gene (CSN2) is considered in other species a 'major' gene for the presence of alleles associated to different level of expression. In the present paper, we report for the first time the characterization of the nucleotide sequence of the whole ß-casein-encoding gene (CSN2) plus 2,141 bp at the 5'-flanking region in Camelus dromedarius. The promoter region and the complete cDNA are also provided for the first time in Camelus bactrianus. The gene is spread over 7.8 kb and consists of 9 exons varying in length from 24 bp (exon 5) to 519 bp (exon 7), and 8 introns from 95 bp (intron 5) to 1,950 bp (intron 1). The composite response element (CoRE) region was identified in the promoter, whereas the presence of mature microRNA sequences improves the knowledge on the factors putatively involved in the gene regulation. A total of 46 polymorphic sites have been detected. The transition g.2126A>G falls within the TATA-box of dromedary CSN2 promoter with a putative influence on the transcription factor binding activity. The frequency of the G allele is 0.35 in a population of 180 she-camels belonging to 4 different ecotypes. In the same population, a conservative SNP (g.4175C>A) was found at the codon 7 of the signal peptide, whereas a comparative analysis with a cDNA sequence available in the database evidenced a missense SNP (g.4180T(Leu)>G(Arg)) at exon 2. Four SNPs were found in the bactrian camel. The SNP c.666G>A is responsible for the amino acid change Met(201)→Ile and it represents the first missense allele at the ß-casein in camels. Finally, five interspersed repeated elements were identified at intronic level, whereas the presence of putative bio-functional peptides belonging to ACE-inhibitor and anti-oxidative families confirms the potential protective role of the camel milk for the human nutrition.

Molecular characterization and genetic variability at κ-casein gene (CSN3) in camels.

κ-casein is a glycosilated protein belonging to a family of phosphoproteins (αs1, ß, αs2, κ) that represent the major protein component in mammalian milk. κ-casein plays an essential role in the casein micelle stabilization, determining the size and the specific function. In the present paper, we report for the first time the characterization of the nucleotide sequence of the whole κ-casein-encoding gene (CSN3) plus 1045 nucleotides at the 5' flanking region in Camelus dromedarius. The promoter region and the complete cDNA were also provided for the first time in Camelus bactrianus. The gene is spread over 9.3kb and consists of 5 exons varying in length from 33bp (exon 3) to 494bp (exon 4), and 4 introns from 1200bp (intron 3) to 2928bp (intron 2). Highly conserved sequences, located in the 5' flanking region, have been found. The regulatory regions of camels seems to be more related to equids than to other compared species. 17 polymorphic sites have been detected, one of these (g.1029T>C) is responsible for the creation of a new putative consensus sequence for the transcription factor HNF-1. In general, these SNPs are the first reported in camels for casein loci. Finally, seven interspersed repeated elements were also identified at intronic level.

X-Y aneuploidy rate in sperm of two "minor" breeds of cattle (Bos taurus) by using dual color fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH).

The present study reports on the frequency of X-Y aneuploidy in the sperm population of two minor cattle breeds reared in Italy, namely Modicana and Agerolese, which are listed in the "Anagraphic Register of autochthonous cattle populations with limited distribution". More than 50 000 sperm nuclei from 11 subjects (5 and 6, respectively for each breed) have been analyzed by the fluorescent in situ hybridization with the Xcen and Y-chromosome specific painting probes. The fraction of X- and Y-bearing sperm was close to the 1:1 ratio in the Modicana breed, whereas in the Agerolese the Y-fraction was significantly higher (P < 0.002) compared to the X-counterpart. The mean rates of X-Y aneuploidy were 0.510 and 0.466%, respectively, in the two breeds; no significant differences were found among individual bulls within each breed. Average frequencies of disomic and diploid sperm were 0.425 and 0.085% in the former and 0.380 and 0.086% in the latter. In both breeds, (a) disomy was significantly more frequent than diploidy (P < 0.01), (b) YY disomy was significantly (P < 0.001) more frequent than XY or XX; (c) MI errors (XY disomy) were significantly (P < 0.01) less represented than MII (XX + YY disomy). Compared to the dairy (Italian Friesian and Brown) and meat (Podolian and Maremmana) breeds previously analyzed, the "minor" breeds investigated in the present study showed a significantly (P < 0.002) higher rate of X-Y aneuploidy (0.486 vs. 0.159 and 0.190%, respectively). Considering all the breeds analyzed -so far- and assuming no significant interchromosomal effect, the baseline level of aneuploidy in the sperm population of the species Bos taurus was estimated as 5.19%. Establishing the baseline level of aneuploidy in the sperm population of the various livestock species/breeds engaged in animal production could reveal useful for monitoring future trends of their reproductive health, especially in relation to management errors and/or environmental hazards.