The effects of vesamicol on trains of endplate currents and on focally recorded nerve terminal currents at mammalian neuromuscular junctions.

1. The effects of vesamicol, an inhibitor of vesicular acetylcholine (ACh) storage, were studied on trains of endplate currents (e.p.cs) in the cut rat hemidiaphragm nerve-muscle preparation and on trains of focally recorded nerve terminal current waveforms in the mouse triangularis sterni nerve-muscle preparation. 2. In the rat, 0.1 and 1 microM (-)-vesamicol produced an enhancement of the rundown of e.p.c. amplitudes during trains of high frequency (50 Hz) nerve stimulation. However, 1 microM (+)-vesamicol had no effect on the rundown of e.p.c. amplitudes. 3. In the mouse, high concentrations of (-)-vesamicol (10-100 microM) produced a concentration- and stimulation-dependent decrease in the amplitude of the second negative-going deflection of focally recorded nerve terminal current waveforms. 4. At 1 mM, (-)-vesamicol produced a stimulation-independent decrease in the amplitude of the first negative-going deflection of the nerve terminal current waveforms, an increase in signal delay and evidence of nerve conduction failure. These all indicate a local anaesthetic-like block of nodal Na(+)-channels. 5. In contrast to its effects on trains of e.p.cs, the effects of vesamicol on the nerve terminal current waveforms were not stereoselective, the (+)-isomer being equipotent with the (-)-isomer. 6. Low concentrations of the Na(+)-channel blocking toxin, tetrodotoxin (15-60 nM), produced similar changes in the focally recorded nerve terminal current waveforms to those seen with vesamicol. 7. It is concluded that the stereoselective rundown of e.p.c. amplitudes produced by (-)-vesamicol is due to an effect, either direct or indirect, on ACh mobilization within motor nerve terminals. Furthermore, in mammalian species, the inhibitory effects of vesamicol on nodal Na+-channels which are seen at high concentrations do not contribute to the principal neuromuscular effects of the compound.

On the blockade of acetylcholine release at mouse motor nerve terminals by beta-bungarotoxin and crotoxin.

1. beta-Bungarotoxin and crotoxin are phospholipose A2 neurotoxins, which block irreversibly the evoked release of acetylcholine from motor nerve terminals of mouse triangularis sterni preparations. 2. Extracellular recording of nerve terminal action potentials reveal that inhibition of transmitter release is not associated with failure of the action potential to invade nerve terminals. 3. When evoked transmitter release (measured as intracellularly recorded endplate potentials) was blocked by beta-bungarotoxin, spontaneous acetylcholine release was stimulated as in control experiments by K(+)-induced depolarization and by the Ca2(+)-ionophore A23187. 4. The site of action of the toxins remains to be elucidated but would appear to be associated with the coupling of action potential induced-depolarization to the release mechanism, rather than with the release mechanism itself.

Effect of veratridine on miniature endplate current amplitudes at the rat neuromuscular junction and acetylcholine uptake by Torpedo synaptic vesicles.

Veratridine produces a marked elevation in spontaneous quantal release from nerve endings through its ability to enhance sodium-channel activity, leading to sustained membrane depolarization. In the course of an electrophysiological investigation into the effects of vesamicol, an inhibitor of the synaptic vesicle acetylcholine transporter, on veratridine-induced acetylcholine release from rat motor nerve terminals we observed that veratridine itself has an effect on miniature endplate current amplitude distributions suggestive of an effect of the compound on the filling of cholinergic synaptic vesicles with acetylcholine. This effect of veratridine is release-dependent, being inhibited by either removal of extracellular calcium ions or by the addition of the sodium channel blocking toxin, tetrodotoxin. Biochemical studies using synaptic vesicles isolated from Torpedo electroplaque confirmed the ability of veratridine to directly inhibit the vesicular transport of acetylcholine. This appears to be a consequence of its ability to dissipate the trans-vesicular membrane proton gradient, which normally drives the active transport of acetylcholine into synaptic vesicles. We discuss how such an action of veratridine could lead to the observed release-dependent effects of the compound on electrophysiologically monitored spontaneous quantal acetylcholine release. The action of veratridine on cholinergic synaptic vesicles could be of considerable import when using this agent to elicit neurotransmitter release from either peripheral or central nerve endings.

Inhibition of the L-type calcium channel by the five muscarinic receptors (m1-m5) expressed in NIH 3T3 cells.

Modulation of L-type calcium channels by the five cloned muscarinic receptors was studied by expression of the receptors in NIH 3T3 cells. Application of acetylcholine (ACh) to cells transfected with m1-m5 resulted in a reduction in the L-type calcium current amplitude. Elevations in intracellular cAMP concentrations induced by 8-bromo-cAMP or forskolin resulted in no discernible change in the L-type calcium current. In addition, treatment with Rp-adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphothioate triethylamine (Rp-cAMPS), a protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, had no effect on the L-type currents. Conversely, application of phorbol dibutyrate, an activator of protein kinase C (PKC) or 8-bromo-cGMP, an activator of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), reduced the calcium currents. Incubation of the cells with KT5823, an inhibitor of PKG, resulted in a reduction of the response to 8-bromo-cGMP. The ACh-induced depression of L-type calcium current amplitude was sensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX) in cells transfected with the m2 or m4 receptor subtype. The m2-muscarinic-receptor-induced inhibition of the L-type calcium current was attenuated by preincubation of the cells with 8-bromo-cAMP and was unaffected by KT5823 or by calphostin C. The m1-muscarinic-receptor-induced inhibition of the L-type calcium conductance was insensitive to PTX treatment. However, the m1-induced response was blocked by preincubation of the cells with calphostin C. The present data indicate that the m2 (and possibly also the m4) muscarinic receptors inhibit the L-type calcium conductance by a reduction in cAMP concentration and that the m1 (and possibly also the m3 and m5) muscarinic receptors inhibit the L-type calcium channel via activation of PKC.

Enhancement of an L-type calcium current in AtT-20 cells; a novel effect of the m4 muscarinic receptor.

Activation of muscarinic receptors has been shown to inhibit L-type calcium conductances by mechanisms sensitive to pertussis toxin (PTX). In this study we show that agonist stimulation of the m4 muscarinic receptor leads to an increase in an L-type calcium conductance in the AtT-20 pituitary cell line, by a PTX-sensitive mechanism. The amplitude of the dihydropyridine (DHP)-sensitive or L-type calcium current was increased by acetylcholine (ACh), with no shift in the voltage dependence. This action of ACh was completely inhibited by PTX pre-treatment. Forskolin, cAMP and phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate reduced, while RpcAMPs, an inhibitor of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), increased the L-type calcium conductance. We propose that the m4 muscarinic receptor activates the L-type calcium channel by inhibition of adenylyl cyclase resulting in reduced cAMP levels and, hence, reduced PKA activity. This novel increase in calcium current via the m4 muscarinic receptor appears to reflect the coupling with an L-type channel of the D class, due to the sensitivity of the L-type calcium conductance to both DHPs and omega-conotoxin, and, thus, is distinct from the skeletal muscle and cardiac L-type channels of the C class previously studied.

Modulation of low-threshold T-type calcium channels by the five muscarinic receptor subtypes in NIH 3T3 cells.

The modulation of a transient T-type calcium current by the five muscarinic receptor subtypes, stably expressed in NIH 3T3 cells, was studied with the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. Voltage-step depolarizations applied to the NIH 3T3 cells revealed a low-voltage-activated (LVA) T-type calcium current that was inhibited by Ni2+ and unaffected by omega-conotoxin GVIA. In cells transfected with the m3 and m5 muscarinic receptors, application of acetylcholine (ACh) resulted in a pertussis-toxin-insensitive increase in peak T-type calcium current amplitude. The m3-induced atropine-sensitive increase in current amplitude was accompanied by a shift in the voltage dependence of activation to more hyperpolarized potentials. The increase in peak T-type calcium current amplitude and the shift in voltage dependence was mimicked by incubation with 500 microM 8-bromo-cAMP. Conversely, T-type calcium current amplitudes were reduced by incubation with 10 microM RpcAMPS, an inhibitor of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). Preincubation with 500 microM 8-bromo-cAMP or with 10 microM RpcAMPS abolished the increase in T-type calcium current amplitude previously noted on stimulation of the m3 muscarinic receptor by ACh. Application of ACh to NIH 3T3 cells stably transformed with the m1 muscarinic receptor resulted in no discernable change in T-type calcium current amplitude. However, on pre-incubation of the cells with calphostin C, an inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC), application of ACh to the cells now resulted in a robust increase in T-type calcium current amplitude. Application of 500 nM PDBu, an activator of PKC, reduced the T-type calcium current amplitude. No significant changes in T-type calcium currents were observed on application of ACh to cells stably transfected with the m2 or m4 muscarinic receptors. However, after pre-incubation with forskolin, the m2 muscarinic receptor induced a decrease in T-type calcium current amplitude. Stimulation of the ml, m3 and m5 muscarinic receptors in the NIH 3T3 cell resulted in dose-dependent increases in the concentration of intracellular cAMP in comparison to control as determined by cAMP immunoassay. Conversely, stimulation of the m2 and m4 muscarinic receptors by carbachol resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in intracellular concentrations of cAMP, as compared with control basal levels. It is concluded that the m3 and m5 muscarinic receptors enhance T-type calcium channel activity. At least in the case of the m3 muscarinic receptor, the increased T-type channel activity appeared to be mediated via increased cAMP levels and subsequent activation of PKA. The lack of effect of the ml muscarinic receptor on the T-type calcium channel was probably due to the opposing actions of concomitant activation of both PKC and PKA. The physiological significance of these findings is discussed.

High-affinity kainate-type ion channels in rat cerebellar granule cells.

1. Patch-clamp recordings were made from rat cerebellar granule cells in primary culture. In cells pre-exposed to concanavalin A (ConA) to remove kainate receptor desensitization, concentration-response data for kainate showed two components. The EC50 value for the high-affinity component (4 microM) was consistent with activation of kainate-type channels. ConA enhanced the apparent potency of the kainate receptor ligand SYM 2081 by 100-fold. 2. In ConA-treated granule cells, currents evoked by 10 microM kainate were not significantly reduced by the AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI 53655, nor were these currents significantly reduced by the co-application of 100 microM AMPA. Currents activated by low concentrations of kainate in the presence of AMPA were completely inhibited by 10 microM La3+. 3. Single-cell reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis indicated that granule cells express both unedited (Q) and edited (R) versions of GluR5, with the majority of the GluR5 transcripts being unedited. In contrast, BluR6(R) was detected in seven cells and GluR6(Q) was detected in one granule cell. 4. Whole-cell current-voltage curves for kainate-type currents in granule cells were measured and the ratio of the slope conductances at +40 MV and -40 mV was used as an index of rectification. The mean +40 mV/-40 mV ratio determined from thirty-six granule cells was 1.3 +/- 0.1. Spectral density analysis of kainate-evoked whole-cell current noise gave values for the apparent single-channel conductance, gamma(noise), that were on average about 1 pS. 5. To compare further the properties of recombinant kainate channels with the native kainate-type channels in granule cells, we determined EC50 and gamma(noise) values for SYM 2081 in stable cell lines expressing either (GluR6(R) or GluR6(R) and KA2. Co-expression of KA2 with GluR6(R) shifts the EC50 and gamma(noise) values determined for SYM 2081 closer to the values typically found for native kainate-type channels in granule cells. 6. The results demonstrate that cerebellar granule cells in culture express functional kainate-type channels and that in most cells these channels show properties that are similar to those determined for heteromeric channels formed from GluR6(R) and KA2. However, the results also suggest that different granule cells express different repertoires of kainate-type channels with different, and perhaps variable, subunit composition.